An Investigation of Sea Otter Species and Potential Concerns of their Re-introduction

An Investigation of Sea Otter Species and Potential Concerns of their Re-introduction

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INTRODUCTION

The sea otter species were nearly driven to extinction by the international fur trade. In fact, their population shrunk extensively during the 1930s. As a result, it was necessary for conservative management strategies to be embraced to rebound the population of this species. The otters are presently listed as threatened under the endangered species act of the United States (Becker et al., 2020, p. 1-2). While the observed recovery has been encouraging, different groups, for instance, the west coast seafood processor association, have expressed concerns about the reintroduction of sea otters (Banse, 2021, para 1). Therefore, this research aims to evaluate the history of west coast otters from being endangered species to their reintroduction and the reasons behind the concerns about the reintroduction of this species.

Theory

Ecosystems behave in a way that is not static and predictable, which means they are highly unpredictable in space and time. The main difficulty of understanding dynamic systems is that long-term information is needed since snapshots in time offer a stationary opinion of ecological processes, while in reality, systems are dynamic and characterized by prolonged change. The long-term viewpoint also provides insights into ecological stability, especially persistence measures, resilience, and at times the existence of numerous states (Watson & Estes, 2011, p. 215). The reintroduction of sea otters has an impact on the ecosystem that had changed during the period the species became almost extinct. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that the potential long-term impacts of the reintroduction of sea otters on the ecosystem are the main reason for the concerns raised by different groups of people.

Evidence

To get more insights regarding the topic of study, a literature-based design will applied. (Newman and Gough, 2020, p.2 ) state that this approach can be applied by researchers to base their opinions on what they know already know and what they do not understand about the situation under study. Therefore, a review of relevant data regarding west coast sea otters and their impact on the ecosystem will be conducted from trustworthy databases such as ProQuest, Science Direct, EbsoHost, and Sage.

Structure

The next section of the research paper discusses existing literature relevant to the research topic. The history of the sea otters, the status of the species, and the impact of their reintroduction are presented in the section. After the review of the literature, the findings of the research and their analysis are presented in the next section. After this section, the conclusion and relevant recommendations are discussed.

CONTEXT

History of Sea Otters

Sea otters are species that were once spread along the majority of the North Pacific Ocean coastlines. However, they were extirpated from these coastlines when the maritime fur trade had peaked between the period of the mid-1700s to mid-1800s. The recovery of this species happened slowly during the initial half of the 20th century, but the significant enhancement to their reintroduction occurred in the late 1960s when sea otters were translocated from Amchitka Island and Prince William Sound, Alaska, to British Columbia, Oregon, Southeast Alaska, and Washington by resource managers. Most of the resource managers’ efforts were successful since the population of this species in these areas is now thriving and abundant. The only exception to this is the Oregon region, where the initial population declined gradually after reintroduction between 1970 -1971. During this time, only one otter was observed in regular surveys, after which it was anticipated that the population would disappear. The cause of the failure of this reintroduction does not exist, but various factors have been hypothesized. They include the lack of suitable habitat or prey, sea otter emigration because of homing behavior, and disturbance by humans. Currently, different stakeholder groups and native communities are advocating for the reintroduction efforts of sea otters in Oregon for the second time. They argue that the second reintroduction could help achieve various objectives, including helping in recovery efforts for species that are of conservation efforts, restoration of coastal food web function and structure, provision of ecosystem services such as recreation and economic benefits, and restoration of cultural and tribal traditions that were lost (Kone et al., 2021, p. 160).

Status of the Species

Prior to the onset of commercial hunting of sea otters in the mid-1700s, it was estimated that there were between 150 000 to 300000 otters in the coastal regions throughout the North Pacific Ocean. The prohibition of hunting was done in 1911 under the international treaty terms, which was signed by the United States, Russia, Japan, and Great Britain (for Canada). At this time, only a few thousands of the species remained, which included a small colony of approximately 50 otters on the coast of central California. This population had increased to more than 1000 sea otters by the time the Marine Mammal Protection Act was enacted in the year 1972. The southern sea otter species was listed as threatened in 1977, and a recovery plan for this population was adopted in 1982 and updated in 2003. This recovery plan indicates that sea otters should be considered for delisting when the average population level over a period of three years exceeds 3090 otters (Marine Mammal Commission, 2022, para 2).

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) estimates indicated that there were 3, 272 sea otters in 2016, which was the highest number since 1972. The count decreased in the next year to 3, 186 but this number exceeded the threshold for its delisting for a second successive year. However, the species has continued to decline in population, with the most recent number being 2, 962 otters which were observed in 2019. Surveys were not done in 2020, and the 2021 stock assessment report indicates that the decline indicates a reduced number of the species in the Northern and the southern region of the mainland range, which has been balanced by progressive growth of the central region of the mainland range and San Nicolas Island’s translocated population. The declining population in the mainland from 2017 may be due to death caused by shark bites, diseases, harmful algal blooms, and other causes (Marine Mammal Commission, 2022, para 4).

Impact of reintroduction of Sea Otters

Sea otters are extensively regarded as species that are essential for restructuring the nearshore marine environment. This species can shit this environment from an invertebrate sea urchin-dominated system into a system that is dominated by kelp. Kelp forests offer a number of essential ecological benefits to the nearshore ecosystems (Espinosa-Romero et al., 2011, p. 1571). According to Filbee-Dexter & Scheibling (2014, p. 1-2), sea urchin barrens are the benthic communities that are conquered by herbivorous sea urchins and coralline red algae. The barrens generally dominate areas that can support kelp beds which are also referred to as forests which are very productive and offer habitat and food to a lot of fish and invertebrates, which are ecologically and commercially essential.

The impact of sea otter repopulation on the marine community has been well documented. (Davis et al., 2019, p. 6) indicates that the impact of repopulation of sea otters on marine communities entails the expansion of kelp forests through the reduction of sea urchin population, the establishment of habitat for kelp settlement via disturbance, modifications to epifaunal and infaunal densities and size, and the reduction of invertebrates such as crabs, octopus, and snails that are valuable commercially. Furthermore, these changes are affected by the population density of the sea otters and the duration after their reoccupation in the area.

Sea otters are species that are keystone predators in the nearshore community. However, they are also preyed on by higher tropic level avian as well as terrestrial and pelagic predators such as white sharks, wolves, and brown bears (Monson, 2021, p. 161). According to Jenkins (2018, p. 5), predators have varying effects, which makes the recovery of threatened or endangered top predators to be conflicting. According to the author, communities are structured by predators via direct predation and trophic cascades. When they are absent, the ecosystem goes through changes in the composition of the community, and they shift into stable states which are dominated by invasive species (p. 3). When they are present, they reduce the community’s vulnerability to invasion by consuming them. Even though the native predators may be impactful agents in resisting invasion, they can also enhance the spread of other invasive species. The predators that prefer to consume native prey can release invaders from the competition, therefore, allowing the proliferation of invasive species (Jenkins, 2018, p. 5).

Definition of terms

Ecosystem: An ecosystem is termed as a biological system that comprises every organism that is present in a specific physical environment interacting with each other (Tsujimoto et al., 2018, p50).

ANALYSIS

Content analysis was used in order to get meaningful insights from the multiple sources of data regarding sea otters. This strategy helped in the familiarization with the data, which enhanced the identification of major themes. Based on the review of existing literature, several themes were identified, including the impact of sea otters on fisheries and human activities restriction.

Impact of Sea Otters on Fisheries

Based on the review of existing literature, one theme that addresses the hypothesis of the research is the impact of sea otter reintroduction on fisheries. Fisheries are one of the concerns regarding the effect of sea otters due to competition for specific shellfish species that are essential to fisheries. The sea otters display a resilient top-down pressure by decreasing the density and size of prey through predation (Kone, 2019, p. 11). Furthermore, Gregr et al. (2020, p. 1) indicate that sea otter recovery is an unpopular undertaking among coastal communities since they strongly compete with human beings for invertebrates such as urchins, crabs, and clams, which are valuable to them. This has resulted in conflict with commercial and subsistence invertebrate fisheries in the reoccupied regions.

Human Activities Restriction

The review of existing literature also indicated that reintroduction of sea otters could lead to restriction of human activities, for instance, commercial, fishing, and recreational activities. A study conducted by Kone (2019, p. 20) found that fisheries tend to overlap or proximate with the core habitat areas of these species. Additionally, Tinker et al. (2021, p. 2) indicate that in some regions, the return of sea otters may conflict with commercial, recreational, and fisheries activities that were made possible by the richness of specific invertebrate taxa, which were made abundant by the absence of sea otters in the ecosystem. Due to the possibility of conflicts, protected areas are established to prevent these human activities or interactions by offering a safe haven by separating the sea otters from people (Curran et al., 2019, p. 54).

Analysis of the Findings

The impact of otters on fisheries and other important human activities are the major concerns presented by existing literature regarding the introduction of sea otters. Sea otters are predators which feed on invertebrates such as crabs, urchins, and clams, which are important to communities living along the coastlines. Therefore, these people have concerns that sea otters reintroduction will reduce the population of these invertebrates, which will benefit them in terms of food and also commercially. Recreational and other commercial activities may also be in danger when sea otters continue to be reintroduced on the west coast. Introduction of protected areas in regions fisheries or other commercial regions such as ports may have a negative impact on communities living along the coastal regions.

CONCLUSION

This research aimed to evaluate the study of the west coast otters from their near extinction to their reintroduction. Specifically, the study aimed to identify the reasons for the concerns raised by people regarding the reintroduction of sea otters on the west coast. The analysis of existing literature indicated that the potential impact of sea otters on fisheries, recreation, and commercial human activities are the major concerns that people living along the coastal regions have about the repopulation of sea otters. The results of the study sufficiently addressed the hypothesis established at the start of the study, which stated that the potential long-term impact of sea otter reintroduction on the ecosystem is the major concern against the approach. From the results, it is evident that the repopulation of sea otters has the potential to impact an ecosystem that was established due to their absence. For instance, a high density of sea otters may affect the density of invertebrates which have been of economic importance to the people living along the coastlines. Therefore, resource managers need to appreciate these concerns of people against extending the repopulation initiatives for their efforts to satisfy everyone involved. Additionally, cost and benefit analysis needs to be conducted for effective and equitable management of the initiative.

References

.Becker, S. L., Nicholson, T. E., Mayer, K. A., Murray, M. J., & Van Houtan, K. S. (2020). Environmental factors may drive the post-release movements of surrogate-reared sea otters. Frontiers in Marine Science, 7.

Banse, T. (2021). Skeptics of sea otter reintroduction getting organized on Pacific Coast. Northwest News Network. https://www.nwnewsnetwork.org/environment-and-planning/2021-08-12/skeptics-of-sea-otter-reintroduction-getting-organized-on-pacific-coast.

Curran, L. S., Kone, D. V., & Wickizer, B. J. (2019). Assessing the feasibility of a sea otter reintroduction to Oregon through a coupled natural-human lens.

Davis, R. W., Bodkin, J. L., Coletti, H. A., Monson, D. H., Larson, S. E., Carswell, L. P., & Nichol, L. M. (2019). Future directions in sea otter research and management. Frontiers in Marine Science, 5, 510.

Espinosa-Romero, M. J., Gregr, E. J., Walters, C., Christensen, V., & Chan, K. M. (2011). Representing mediating effects and species reintroductions in Ecopath with Ecosim. Ecological Modelling, 222(9), 1569-1579.

Filbee-Dexter, K., & Scheibling, R. E. (2014). Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems. Marine ecology progress series, 495, 1-25.

Gregr, E. J., Christensen, V., Nichol, L., Martone, R. G., Markel, R. W., Watson, J. C., … & Chan, K. M. (2020). Cascading social-ecological costs and benefits triggered by a recovering keystone predator. Science, 368(6496), 1243-1247.

Jenkins, M. F. (2018). Indirect Food Web Interactions: Sea Otter Predation Linked to Invasion Success in a Marine Fouling Community.

Kone, D. (2019). An ecological assessment of a potential sea otter (Enhydra lutris) reintroduction to the Oregon coast.

Kone, D. V., Tinker, M. T., & Torres, L. G. (2021). Informing sea otter reintroduction through habitat and human interaction assessment. Endangered Species Research, 44, 159-176.

Marine Mammal Commission. (2022). Southern Sea Otter. Retrieved from https://www.mmc.gov/priority-topics/species-of-concern/southern-sea-otter/.

Monson, D. H. (2021). Sea Otter Predator Avoidance Behavior. In Ethology and Behavioral Ecology of Sea Otters and Polar Bears (pp. 161-172). Springer, Cham.

Newman, M., & Gough, D. (2020). Systematic reviews in educational research: Methodology, perspectives and application. Systematic reviews in educational research, 3-22.

Tinker, M. T., Yee, J. L., Laidre, K. L., Hatfield, B. B., Harris, M. D., Tomoleoni, J. A., … & Miles, A. K. (2021). Habitat features predict carrying capacity of a recovering marine carnivore. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 85(2), 303-323.

Tsujimoto, M., Kajikawa, Y., Tomita, J., & Matsumoto, Y. (2018). A review of the ecosystem concept—Towards coherent ecosystem design. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 136, 49-58.

Watson, J., & Estes, J. A. (2011). Stability, resilience, and phase shifts in rocky subtidal communities along the west coast of Vancouver Island, Canada. Ecological Monographs, 81(2), 215-239.