Recent orders
Films are developed to serve different purposes, and one of them may be to convey the truth about society.
Name
Professor
Course
Date
Introduction
Films are developed to serve different purposes, and one of them may be to convey the truth about society. Even though sharing cultural experience and information of specific cultures may be essential in enriching the understanding of its ancestry and heritage, basing the film exclusively on images acquired from the media poses a great risk when the individuals belonging to the culture are represented inaccurately. This essay will present a discussion of how Native people have been represented in twentieth-century films. Additionally, a discussion of how their representation in film changed from the start of the twentieth century and how the representations serve as an instrument of social and cultural instruction in the U.S will also be discussed.
Representation of Native People in Film During the Twentieth Century
One of the key takeaways from the twentieth-century films is that Native Americans and their culture are underrepresented in the films. These movies aim to enrich the audience about the Native people, but still, these people are not represented well enough when it comes to the characters. This is evident in the film The Searchers, where the reviewers indicate that only one male character can be identified as an Indian character while the other men getting killed by the Whites while on their horses are faceless. In this case, even the identifiable Indian character Scar was played by a German, which means he was a White man. The same is evident in the film Broken Arrow which many commentators indicate has flaws such as Native Americans using English and Whites taking the roles of Indians. Therefore, it is evident that in twentieth-century films, there is an element of whitewashing which refers to the situation that occurs when producers actively seek and cast actors who are white for the roles that are meant for people of a certain race or ethnicity (Starling, 1).
In 20th century films, the Native Americans are not only underrepresented, but they are also represented inaccurately. One of the ways this has been done is the overgeneralization of the different Native American groups, as evident in the film The searchers. The reviewers wonder why Comanches in the film are permitted to speak Navajo while Comanche and Navajo are from two diverse language groups which are not mutually comprehensible. From the film, it is apparent that the multiple language groups are represented as one flat image of the Native Americans.
Additionally, in the film Broken Arrow, the relation between the Whites and the Native Americans is introduced inaccurately through the omission of some crucial events. This is marked at the start of the film when Tom Jeffords talks about the story of the land and Cochise, the Indian leader of the Chiricahua Apache tribe. There are two essential omissions from the narrator, which allows for the exclusion of the inconvenient fact that the Native Americans had fought the Spaniards, Mexicans, and Euro-Americans for sixty years. The narrator traveling alone is also inaccurate since laws encouraging the slaughter of buffalos and mining of gold and silver on Native American reservations had led to the migration of whites to the West. Furthermore, introducing Cochise as the leader of the Chiricahua Apaches indicates that the film represents the tribal government similar to that of the United States government, which is inaccurate. A council representing every tribe made the decision on what the collective tribe would do and not Cochise. From the film, it is clear that there is an element of revisionism where events that are inconvenient to the whites are omitted.
Lastly, the popular stories and films in the 20th century represent Native Americans as barbaric and savage. The Pocahontas Perplex indicates that in the songs written by the whites, it is normally told that Pocahontas rescues her white lover from her own “barbarous” people since, as a Christian, she could not withstand seeing a fellow Christian getting slain by “savages” (704). This is also consistent in the film Broken Arrow where the Cochise is represented as a noble savage who is all-wise and knowing instead of an individual who is tired, weary, and willing to make peace since he understands that the whites are strong and numerous for his people to triumph. Therefore, the films in the 20th century develop stereotypes that represent Native Americans as savage and barbaric.
Change in Native People Representations from the Early Twentieth Century
A few changes are evident in terms of the representation of Native Americans from the early twentieth century. One of these changes is that there is some sort of representation of the Native Americans and their culture in the films later on in the century when compared to the beginning of the century. For instance, the film Broken Arrow which was released in 1950, has a major flaw in representing the Native American culture by having the Native Americans speak English. A change is evident in the 1956 film The searchers, where the reviewers state that they should be thankful that a real Indian language has been spoken by the Native Americans in the film “instead of just gibberish” (340).
Another change in Native representation in the twentieth century is that true stories that are inconvenient to the whites are included in the films. In Broken Arrow, there are a lot of omissions that seem to be awkward for the whites, but in The searchers, some of the scenes are true and inconvenient to the whites. In the film, Debbie, who is a white woman, is shown to be perfectly calm and well taken care of as well as respected and not degraded while she is at the Comanches. In this film, the audience is also informed that Scar’s attacks are not motivated by an utter sense of cruelty and brutality, but they are based on the fact that whites had killed his sons. Therefore, as the century progresses, the films represent some truth about the Native Americans by representing them as caring when Debbie is not degraded by the Native Americans. Furthermore, Scar’s actions are portrayed as a product of physical and emotional results of the murder of his sons by the whites and not as a result of being savage and barbaric.
Themes that Persisted During the Century
Even though true stories are being shown and Native American representation in films are evident during the twentieth century, some themes manifested earlier in the century are still persistent. One of the persistent themes is that even though the Indian language is spoken by Indians in the film, the generalizations of the Native American language groups is still present; for example, in The Searchers, Native Americans are represented as generic Indians where the Comachos are allowed to speak Navajo, and yet they belong to different groups. Besides, even though more Indians are involved in the films, they are employed as “extras” in movies that would represent them in a negative manner.
Moreover, even though true stories about Native Americans and their culture are represented later in the century, revisionism and omissions are still persistent. For instance, in the film The Searchers, even though Scar’s actions are linked to the murder of his sons by the whites, the physical and emotional results caused by the whites are omitted in the film. On the other hand, the results of the killings committed by Scar are included in the film. Therefore, the events that may inconvenience the whites are still omitted in the film. Furthermore, the story of Debbie is revised when you consider the tale of Cynthia Ann Parker, the historical woman on whom she is based on. The historical woman never intended to leave the Comanches, unlike Debbie in the film, who indicates that she won’t leave the Comanches since they are her people but later changes her mind and returns to white civilization happily. According to the legend, Cynthia was recaptured by the whites, and her relatives mistreated her such that she even attempted to escape to the Comanches, but she later committed suicide. The son she left behind in the Comanches used attorneys to gain custody of Cynthia’s body, and this is different from what the film presents. According to the film, Debby indicates that the graves had been moved when the Army confiscated the Comanche cemetery to utilize it as a weapons testing field. Therefore, even though the story presented in the film is true, the details are not accurate enough.
During the century, there is evidence that revisionism and the omission of events that are awkward to the whites are still persistent. Even though true stories have been included in these films, the film directors are still using the traditional and fictional approaches to revise important events. The persistence of these themes during the century may be attributed to different factors such as the fear of the directors that presenting the entire truth would not make the film marketable and the lack of detailed understanding of the stories, which made the directors go as far as they are able to.
Representation of Natives as an Instrument of Social and Cultural Instruction
The representation of the Natives in the film has been a major contributor to how people in the U.S view the Native Americans. Majorly, the films have contributed to the stereotyping of Native Americans, which is centered on savagery. However, producers have applied this representation as an instrument of cultural criticism. Films and documentaries that entail accurate indigenous perspectives and which explore the complexities of how Native groups have consistently been naively misrepresented in the film have been created (Stoddard et al. 13). The directors aim to challenge the representations made about Native people through simplistic presentation of Native culture, customs, and rituals in order to change the existing stereotypes.
Works Cited
Starling, Clair. “Whitewashing in the US Film Industry.” Continuum 7 (2020): 01-09.
Stoddard, Jeremy, Alan Marcus, and David Hicks. “The burden of historical representation: The case of/for Indigenous film.” The History Teacher 48.1 (2014): 9-36.
IMPACTS OF
IMPACTS OF AGROFORESTRY ADOPTION ON THE LIVELIHOODS OF SMALL HOLDER FARMERS IN THE NEWLY SETTLED SOLIO RANCH SCHEME IN LAIKIPIA COUNTY.
BY
WINFRED GATHONI KIRUGUMI
A Research Proposal Submitted to the Department of Agriculture and rural development in Partial Fulfillment for the Award of Degree of Masters in Agriculture of Kenya Methodist University.
February, 2022
DECLARATIONThis research proposal is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other University.
Signature……………………………………Date………/………/2022
Winfred Gathoni Kirugumi
Admission no: AGR-3-0034-1/2021
This research proposal has been submitted for examination with my approval as the university supervisor.
Signature……………………………………Date………/………/2022
Dr. Mworia Mugambi
Department of Agriculture and Rural Development
Kenya Methodist University
ABSTRACTThe goal of this study is to ascertain the impacts of agroforestry on smallholder farmers in the Solio ranch program. Four research objectives will lead the study: to ascertain the income earned by smallholder farmers through agroforestry adoption in the Solio resettlement scheme, to ascertain the environmental benefits of agroforestry adoption on the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the newly settled Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County, to ascertain the extent to which food and energy diversification are associated with agroforestry adoption by smallholder farmers in the newly settled Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County, and to ascertain the extent to which inorganic fertilizer usage has decreased over time as a result of the implementation of agroforestry in Solio ranch scheme The study will use Sloven’s method and simple random sampling to select 368 smallholder farmers from a population of 4,600. A structured questionnaire will be provided to randomly selected farmers in the Solio settlement program in order to collect data. Twelve farmers who will not participate in the actual survey will be chosen for the pilot study. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences will be used to evaluate the findings using descriptive and inferential statistics (SPSS version 25). The study data will be summarized and presented using a variety of descriptive statistical methods, including frequencies, percentages, tables, pie charts, and bar graphs, in order to reach conclusions. The impacts of agroforestry adoption will be determined using correlation and multiple regression analysis, as well as Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and chi-square analysis. This research will adhere to research ethics throughout the data collection process.
TABLE OF CONTENT Page
TOC o “1-3” h z u DECLARATION PAGEREF _Toc95407748 h iiABSTRACT PAGEREF _Toc95407749 h iiiTABLE OF CONTENT PAGEREF _Toc95407750 h ivCHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION1.0 Background to the study PAGEREF _Toc95407753 h 11.2 Statement of the problem PAGEREF _Toc95407754 h 51.3 General objectives PAGEREF _Toc95407755 h 61.3.1 Specific Objectives PAGEREF _Toc95407756 h 61.4 Research Questions PAGEREF _Toc95407757 h 61.5 Significance of the study PAGEREF _Toc95407758 h 71.5.1 Smallholder farmers PAGEREF _Toc95407759 h 71.5.2 County government and partners PAGEREF _Toc95407760 h 71.5.3 Scholars, academicians and researchers PAGEREF _Toc95407761 h 81.6 Justification of the Study PAGEREF _Toc95407762 h 81.7 Scope of the study PAGEREF _Toc95407763 h 81.8 Study Limitations PAGEREF _Toc95407764 h 91.9 Assumptions of the Study PAGEREF _Toc95407765 h 91.10 Operational definition of terms PAGEREF _Toc95407766 h 10CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1 Introduction PAGEREF _Toc95407769 h 112.2 Adoption of agroforestry and livelihoods PAGEREF _Toc95407770 h 112.3 Agroforestry PAGEREF _Toc95407771 h 132.4.1 Agroforestry, income and livelihoods PAGEREF _Toc95407772 h 142.4.2 Agroforestry, Benefits to the environment and livelihoods PAGEREF _Toc95407773 h 162.4.3 Agroforestry and decreased reliance on inorganic fertilizers to increase food and energy production PAGEREF _Toc95407774 h 172.5 Conceptual Framework PAGEREF _Toc95407775 h 192.6 Operationalization framework PAGEREF _Toc95407776 h 202.7 Research gap PAGEREF _Toc95407777 h 20CHAPTER THREERESEARCH METHODOLOGY3.0 Introduction PAGEREF _Toc95407780 h 223.1 Study Design PAGEREF _Toc95407781 h 223.2 Target Population PAGEREF _Toc95407782 h 233.3 Sampling frame PAGEREF _Toc95407783 h 233.4 Sampling methods, sampling design and sample size PAGEREF _Toc95407784 h 243.5 Data collection Tools PAGEREF _Toc95407785 h 253.6 Data Collection Procedures PAGEREF _Toc95407786 h 253.7 Pretesting of Research Instruments PAGEREF _Toc95407787 h 263.7.1 Pilot Study PAGEREF _Toc95407788 h 263.7.2 Validity PAGEREF _Toc95407789 h 263.7.3 Reliability PAGEREF _Toc95407790 h 263.8 Data Processing and Analysis PAGEREF _Toc95407791 h 273.9 Normality Testing PAGEREF _Toc95407792 h 283.10 Study ethics considerations PAGEREF _Toc95407793 h 28
CHAPTER ONEINTRODUCTION1.0 Background to the studyAgroforestry is the deliberated consortia of trees with crop plants and/or livestock, in determined space arrangements and sequences, presenting varied interactions among them (Coelho, 2017). The practice of agroforestry includes attempted integration and management of a consortia of forest and agricultural resources on the same landscape, where farmers grow trees on their farms, pasturelands and homesteads (Kinyili,2021; PEVERI, 2021; Wanjira & Muriuki, 2020). According to Shidiki, Ambebe & Awazi (2020), agroforestry can either be a spatial arrangement of plants and livestock with an integration of forests at the same time or time-sequence where trees and shrubs are planted on a fallow to enhance fertility.
Agroforestry has traditionally been connected with positive livelihood development, appropriate land management, and long-term development (Asaaga & Malhi, 2020; Tiwari, 2017). These include the availability of a range of things for use (Temu, 2013), such as energy in the form of firewood, building materials in the form of posts and timber, food such as farm-crop grown; beans and maize, fruits, and medication (Sharma & Singh, 2016; Wafuke, 2012). A study by Muir (2021) adds to prior studies by stating that in various rural regions, there are other non-timber goods such as wax and honey from bees, safe to eat fruits, nutritious insects, vegetables, herbal remedies, brooms, and fibers that can be generated through agroforestry. Trees and shrubs have numerous benefits such as trapping carbon from the atmosphere, tapping nutrients and water deep into the ground, providing fodder for livestock, creating microclimates, and serving aesthetic purposes (Uphoff, (Ed.). 2013; Recha, Shames, & Heiner, 2014). Further, trees and shrubs are recognized to provide the habitat and food for the majority of wild animals (Mojo & Alebachew, 2014).
Globally, adoption of agroforestry is advocated to small holder farmers and rural households to provide food security, diversify income through tree seedlings business, selling of firewood and sales of surplus food crops and to bring back ecological systems (Leach & Mearns, 2013; Carsan, 2012). Subsequently, several international bodies including the United Nations (UN) and World Bank (WB), governments and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have provided inputs to push in adopters or farmers to agroforestry and who reside in the tropical region of the world where conditions are favorable (Miller, Ordonez, Baylis & Rana, 2017).
According to Brown, Miller, Ordonez, and Baylis (2018), agroforestry used to be poorly established in East Africa throughout the past decades, with farmers participating in the activities always being less than 8%, but has been increasing since the turn of the millennium. Smallholders in Ethiopia practice various agroforestry practices based on socioeconomic and biophysical conditions, which has livelihood implications (Madalcho & Tefera, 2016; Alambo, 2020) the atmosphere, tapping nutrients and water deep from the ground, providing fodder for livestock, creating a microclimate, and aesthetic purposes (Uphoff, (Ed.). 2013; Recha, Shames, & Heiner, 2014). The deliberate retaining of naturally occurring trees on farmlands, provision of incomes, prevention of soil erosion that result to a reduction in inorganic fertilizer usage and ecological systems are some of common land use purposes carried out by these smallholder farmers (Iiyama et al. 2017). However, the practice of farmland agroforestry is declining in many agricultural landscapes in Ethiopia due to increase in fuelwood demand and degradation of nearby forests, agricultural intensification, the increasing popularity of exotic tree species which generate larger economic benefits for farmers and the fact that land proclamations do not specify clear instructions for farmers on how to manage and conserve indigenous trees (Amare, Wondie, Mekuria & Darr, 2019; Elagib & Al-Saidi, 2020).
In Kenya, numerous agroforestry techniques have been employed over the years. The shamba system is the oldest, in which peasants are allowed to pursue agricultural in government gazetted woods in exchange for caring for the trees and bushes. The alternative option is the Plantation Establishment and Livelihood Improvement Scheme (PELIS), under which farmers are permitted to undertake agriculture during the early stages of afforestation or reafforestation and are required to stop when the canopies cover the underlying vegetation (Chabeda-Barthe & Haller, 2018; Wanjira & Muriuki, 2020; Achungo, 2015). On the other hand, farmers plant trees and bushes on their fields in addition to crops and keeping animals (Njue, Koech, Hitimana, &Sirmah, (2016).
According to Kenyan researchers, if agroforestry is integrated at the home level, it has the potential to give economic, social, and environmental benefits capable of addressing household income, fuel, food supply, and environmental concerns (Catherine ,2021). There have been numerous campaigns in Kenya to direct and encourage farmers to adopt agroforestry practises in their farmland (Maina , 2020), and notably, agroforestry in Kenya, with multiple designs, is being adopted in private small-scale and government-owned farms for multiple objectives such as food, energy, and environmental benefits, including climate change mitigation (Sharma at el., 2016; Renzaho, Kamara & Toole, 2017). Despite this, the rate of agroforestry adoption in Kenya remains low due to a variety of constraints. As a result of the poor adoption status of agroforestry, several recommendations have been proposed that advocate for agroforestry adoption in various locations throughout the country (Kimaro, 2019; Bisong & Larwanou, 2019).
Solio is a new resettlement ranch scheme that was established in 2009 (Gakuru, 2017). The scheme, which is located in the shadow of Mt Kenya, is characterized by 400-750mm annual rainfall, hence classified as semi-arid. It was a desolate area until the squatters brought from central Kenya were relocated on it . However, great progress has been made in reclaiming the land by the County Government of Laikipia (CGL) (2020), through the planting of trees and shrubs. Residents are also interested in livestock keeping and crops production, according to CGL (2020). As a result, this is a great place for establishing human-environment interaction, particularly in agriculture and tree planting. With the majority of the population being smallholder farmers, they stand to benefit greatly from agroforestry. This is due to the fact that agroforestry produces a varied range of products and services while employing tiny plots of land (Muschle , 2016). The county government of Laikipia has made attempts to stimulate the use of agroforestry in the Solio Ranch programme in order to improve smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, economic development, and resilience (Laikipia County Development report,2020). However, there has been minimal attempt to assess the trade-off between agroforestry adoption and its impacts on the livelihoods of these Solio ranch resettlement programme small holder farmers. According to Benjamin (2018), the frequent pronounced livelihood components recognized in agroforestry adoption include income expansion, ecosystem benefits, increase in output owing to reduction in inorganic fertilizer usage, and diversity of food and energy. Unfortunately, there are minimal studies that identify the impacts of agroforestry adoption on livelihoods. This study will examine the impacts of agroforestry adoption to the livelihood of small holder farmers in the Solio ranch scheme, with a particular emphasis on income, food and energy diversification, environmental benefits, and reduction in inorganic fertilizer usage, as well as how these benefits act as a catalyst for and sustain the practice of agroforestry adoption in the ranch
1.2 Statement of the problemThe Kenyan government has spent the last two decades collaborating with smallholder farmers across the tropics to find and create improved agroforestry practices that build on indigenous knowledge and deliver major benefits to households and the environment. Throughout history, the Kenyan government has endeavored to implement ambitious agricultural policies with initiatives targeted at increasing agricultural production and performance in order to improve the livelihoods of the majority of farmers (Kampmann & Kirui, 2021). Among the practices that have followed from these attempts are new resettlement schemes designed at generating income, addressing climate change, boosting food production, and improving energy efficiency among rural smallholder farmers. Despite these efforts, research indicates that farmers continue to endure widespread poverty even when they adopt agroforestry (Catherine, 2021). Farmers who implement agroforestry, on the other hand, gain from increased environmental benefits, income, food, and energy diversification (Kassie, 2018). It is vital to examine the impact of agroforestry on smallholder farmers’ livelihoods in order to acquire a better understanding of how it affects them. As a result, agroforestry must play a greater role in meeting the demand for trees, as well as the resources and expertise necessary for their adoption by smallholder farmers. Agroforestry advancement has been extremely limited as a result of its adverse effects on the environment, livelihoods, and reduction in inorganic fertilizer use development, resulting in low acceptance among practitioners, farmers, and policymakers (Brown et al., 2018). This issue is becoming more obvious as environmental consciousness grows, with more recommendations targeted at strengthening agroforestry’s role in providing ecosystem services, livelihoods, and reducing inorganic fertilizer use (Crous-Duran et al., 2018). To encourage farmers to adopt agroforestry, it is necessary for them to understand how agroforestry contributes to these suites of advantages Ospina (2017). There is mounting evidence that agroforestry plays a significant role in diversifying household incomes, increasing food and energy production, and modifying the climate. This role can be effectively utilized to improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in many parts of Kenya with sparse forest cover. However, there is limited study on the influence of agroforestry adoption on the lives of smallholder farmers in Laikipia county’s newly established Solio ranch scheme. As such, the researcher is motivated and encouraged to undertake this study in the Solio resettlement scheme in order to close this information gap.
1.3 General objectivesThe study seeks to evaluate the impacts of agroforestry adoption on the livelihoods of small holder farmers in the Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County.
1.3.1 Specific ObjectivesTo ascertain the income earned through agroforestry adoption by smallholder farmers in Solio resettlement scheme.
To determine the environmental benefits of agroforestry adoption on the livelihood of small holder farmers in the newly settled Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County.
To measure food and energy diversification associated with agroforestry adoption to small holder farmers in the newly settled Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County
To ascertain the extent to which inorganic fertilizer usage has decreased over time as a result of the implementation of agroforestry in Solio ranch scheme.
1.4 Research QuestionsHave the small holder farmers been able to diversify their incomes since adoption of agroforestry in the newly settled Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County?
What are the environmental benefits that results from agroforestry adoption to small holder farmers of the newly settled Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County?
Has the agroforestry provided food and energy diversification to the small holder farmers in the newly settled Solio Ranch Scheme in Laikipia County?
To what extent has inorganic fertilizer usage reduced over the years due to improved Reduction in inorganic fertilizer usage associated with agroforestry adoption?
1.5 Significance of the study1.5.1 Smallholder farmers
The findings of this study will provide insights on the impacts of incorporating agroforestry into settlement projects. Farmers will be notified about the degrees of diversification of their household earnings from fodder sales, crop sales, energy in the form of firewood, and sales of building posts and timber. Furthermore, farmers will benefit from the study by understanding how the trees and shrubs they plant serve to improve the overall landscape, improve food security, increase output, and overall livelihood sustainability.
1.5.2 County government and partnersThe findings of this study will be particularly valuable to the Laikipia County Government and other climate change partners since they will inform the contributions that smallholder farmers who practice agroforestry will benefit. They will use this document as a guide when developing a policy that will lead to the reclamation of other degraded areas, thereby boosting their productivity and enhancing their food supply.
1.5.3 Scholars, academicians and researchersThe study will motivate other academics to perform additional research on the impact of agroforestry adoption on livelihood of smallholder farmers of resettlement schemes across the board and nationalism.1.6 Justification of the StudyThe majority of those residing in the Solio resettlement plan came from roadside camps and other informal settlements (County Government of Laikipia, 2020). As a result, these people must make use of the available resources (land and water) to improve their lives. Because the region is semi-arid, agroforestry is a viable option for them. Studies on the impact of agroforestry on smallholder farmers have highlighted the social, economic, and environmental benefits (Kinyili & Ndunda, 2021). However, little has been done to identify the unique impacts of agroforestry adoption on the livelihood of smallholder farmers in the newly established ranch system in Laikipia county, resulting in a knowledge gap. As a result, it is reasonable to expect that this study will provide pertinent information about the impacts of agroforestry adoption on smallholder farmers in the solio ranch system.
1.7 Scope of the studyThe research will be conducted at the solio resettlement ranch scheme, which is located in the shadow of Mt Kenya and is characterized by 400-750mm annual rainfall, making it a semi-arid environment. The study will focus on this solio ranch plan to conduct the research since the land was dry and had almost no trees when the residents were relocated to it, but this has changed over the last twelve years and the area has experienced an increase in the number of trees and shrubs.
As a result, the small holder farmers in this scheme are in an excellent position to highlight the benefits they have received through agroforestry adoption.
1.8 Study LimitationsThis study will be devoted solely on the Solio resettlement plan in Laikipia County. The study’s limitations include the fact that the features of smallholder farmers in the Solio scheme may distinguish them from other smallholder farmers, and thus the study’s findings may not be generalizable to other counties and boards in terms of agroforestry adoption. Another study limitation is determining whether smallholder farmers will disclose accurate data on the actual income earned by agroforestry, given the sensitive nature of the subject. This barrier will be overcome by giving respondents with a letter of introduction from Kenya Methodist University saying that their information will be used solely for academic reasons and would be held in the highest confidence.1.9 Assumptions of the Study
During the study, the researcher will assume the following:
The respondents will freely express their opinions and feelings about the study variables.
That the farmers will be unbiassed and provide correct and honest data to the questions.
Variables not used in this study will not affect the it’s outcomes
1.10 Operational definition of termsScheme: A scheme is a plan for promoting rural development by establishing farmers in impoverished areas with the goal of increasing their income (Awulachew, 2019).
Income: Incomes generated from agroforestry adoption by small holder farmers
Agroforestry: This refers to a simultaneous integration of trees, cultivable crops, and livestock in fields (Jose, Gold, & Garrett, 2012).
Ecosystem services: In the context of this study, “ecosystem services” refers to the benefits received from the use of agricultural practices (Ziter & Turner, 2018).
Income: Amount of money earned by farmers from any activity both inside and outside the farm (Bellemare & Lim, 2018).
Livelihoods: Livelihoods are the circumstances in which the majority of people live and are able to meet their basic necessities (Dinku, 2018).
CHAPTER TWOLITERATURE REVIEW2.1 IntroductionThe chapter discusses prior research on the effects of agroforestry adoption on small-holder farmers’ livelihoods. It will also explore pertinent empirical reviews on the impact of agroforestry to the lives of smallholder farmers, as well as the conceptual framework, operational framework, and research deficit.
2.2 Adoption of agroforestry and livelihoodsAgroforestry is practiced by smallholder farmers worldwide with the primary purpose of increasing indoor food, energy, and revenue (Mume & Workalemahu, 2021). Farmers in Latin and Central America replicated the floral diversity of tropical forests by planting crops with a range of growth types (Altieri, Nicholls, Henao & Lana, 2015). According to Dagar and Tewari (2016), agroforestry was conducted in Asia through a complex system of shifting cropping, with some trees purposefully left standing to create a partial shade for new foliage to emerge before the rice growing season ended.
In Africa, (Amonum and Bada, 2019) discovered an extensive mixture of herbaceous plants and trees in Katsina State, Nigeria, whereas in Malawi, (Coulibaly, Chiputwa, Nakelse, & Kundhlande, (2017) discovered crops were cultivated in combination with tree species to produce food and timber. These examples from across the globe demonstrate that previous households were more concerned with food production and the integration of trees into farms for other purposes. Agroforestry rarely reaches 9% of farmland in the majority of countries (Kamoto, Sills, Mutta & Kabwe, 2021). Thus, agroforestry productivity in numerous countries continues to be insufficient to make a sustainable contribution or to meet the general population’s need for trees and their associated goods (Sharma and Sharma, 2017). As a result, the majority of agroforestry is always abandoned in favor of other food cropping systems (Muschler, 2016).
According to studies, the proclivity for agroforestry development in Kenya has always been associated with a strong demand for food, energy, and medicine, as well as the possibility to produce cash through the sale of firewood, seedlings, poles, and timber (Jerneck & Olsson, 2013). Another study (Kinyili, Ndunda, & Kitur, 2020; Catherine, 2021; Jha, Kaechele, & Sieber, 2021) claims that smallholder farmers in Kenya and Ethiopia employ agroforestry to provide timber and poles for construction. As a result, agroforestry is considered as a means of diversifying production, mitigating the risk of global warming, and reducing inorganic fertilizer use, all of which contribute to augmenting limited household incomes (Kinyili & Ndunda, 2021), as well as relieving strain on natural forests (Lin, 2014). However, it is disputed if these aims have been realized in a large number of developing countries. According to Nyaga, Barrios, Muthuri, Born, Matiru, and Sinclair (2015), roughly 1.2 million Kenyans practice some type of agroforestry on their farms and in rural communities. While these farming communities have long practiced agroforestry, there is a dearth of awareness about agroforestry’s contribution to their livelihoods, economic development, and environmental advantages (Meijer, Ajayi & Sileshi, 2015). Smallholder farmers in Kenya utilize agroforestry because it is a cost-effective method of simultaneously growing trees, crops, and cattle (Benjamin & Sauer, 2018).
2.3 AgroforestryTraditional to modern agroforestry practices exist (Zerihun, 2021). Agroforestry in various temperate and tropical locations is grouped into eight groups based on its nature, complexity, and purpose (Sultana & Bari, 2021). To begin, this is where homestead gardens come into play. Homestead gardens are practices that incorporate an intimate, multistory arrangement of a variety of trees, crops, and likely livestock rearing (Kumar, 2015). Second, the term “agroforestry” refers to crops grown on mountain slopes during the early stages of forest plantation establishment (Dhakal & Rai, 2020). Thirdly, improved fallow refers to fast-growing woody plants, preferably leguminous, that are planted during the fallow phase of shifting agriculture (Nair at el., 2021). The fourth is the synthesis of agricultural and plantation crops, which includes multistory combinations of trees and crops, shade trees and crops (Sultana & Bari, 2021; Nimbolkar, 2016). Fifth, multifunctional trees are fruit and other trees that are planted randomly or in a planned manner in cropland or pasture to supply fruit, fuel wood, fodder, and timber on farms and rangelands, among other functions (Zerihun, 2020). The sixth agroforestry practice is combining trees with fodder and animal production, such as grazing in existing forests, utilizing trees to form living fences around pasture, or providing shade and erosion control, a practice dubbed’silvopasture’ agroforestry (Nair at el., 2021; Elevitch, Mazaroli & Ragone, 2018). Seventh, windbreaks and shelterbelts are rows of trees planted and managed around farms and fields as part of crop or livestock operations to protect crops, cattle, and soil from natural threats such as wind, severe rain, seas, or flooding (Nair, 2012; Bhardwaj, Navale & Sharma, 2017). Finally, alley cropping involves the cultivation of fast-growing, typically leguminous woody species in single or grouped rows that are mulched into agricultural production alleys to add organic matter and nutrients and/or collected for various reasons such as animal fodder (Boinot, Barkaoui, Lauri & Meziere, 2019)
2.4.1 Agroforestry, income and livelihoods
Globally, 42% of landmass is made up of dryland and semi-arid zones, which have a low moisture content due to low rainfall and high evaporation rates (Deng, Luo, Chen & Lu, 2020). Innumerable issues such as climate unpredictability, frequent droughts, degradation of natural resources, and decreased agricultural production have exacerbated the situation in dryland areas, resulting in high rates of poverty (Syano, Wasonga, Nyangito, Kironchi, Egeru, Mganga & Elhag, 2016). Agroforestry, which involves the integration of trees on farms and in agricultural landscapes, has recently been considered as a means of generating revenue in dryland regions (Syano et al., 2016)
Agroforestry’s numerous perceived benefits and merits for supplying ecological services, economic goods, and social services are well-known and generally accepted (Meijer at el., 2015). Agroforestry has been recognized for its ability to generate money by emphasizing the system’s increased economic return, which has a significant impact on rural incomes (Kinyili at el., 2020). With rising food prices, rising energy costs, and payments for environmental commodities, the economic benefits of agroforestry have maintained an incomprehensible level of interest among research communities, particularly in underdeveloped nations (Kinyili, 2021).
Agroforestry is currently used by a large number of smallholder farmers in Africa (Awazi & Tchamba, 2019; Amare et al., 2019; Quandt, Neufeldt & McCabe, 2017) and has seen a significant increase in adoption by farmers in a number of regions of the continent, most notably Sub-Saharan Africa (Nkonya, Johnson, Kwon & Kato, 2016; Meijer et al., 2015). The idea of integrating and managing trees alongside crops and livestock on the same terrain is viewed as a potential source of additional revenue (Mbow at el., 2014).
Numerous scholars have investigated and studied the income generated by various agroforestry adoption strategies, and the results indicate a wide range of diversity in terms of the overall socioeconomic and livelihood implications (Meijer at el., 2015). Nonetheless, research on the contribution of agroforestry on socioeconomic status and rural livelihoods is limited in numerous drylands of Sub Saharan Africa, and hence may be inconclusive. As a result, additional research on agroforestry uptake and socioeconomic conditions is required.
Smallholder farmers’ tree planting creates an opportunity cost for other possibilities (Van Der Meer Simo, Kanowski & Barney, 2020; Benjamin & Sauer, 2018). As a result, the goal of smallholder tree nursery enterprises is to optimize output and, ultimately, tree yields, which translates into increased earnings. There are fixed expenditures related with the purchase of land, nursery building, heavy equipment and machinery, as well as land charges, in smallholder tree nursery enterprises (KINYILI, 2021). Additionally, variable expenses such as fertilizers, seedlings, labor, transportation, and the procurement of fertilizers and pesticides, as well as other operating overheads like as power, must be considered during economic analysis. This suggests that the revenue earned by these smallholder farmers’ tree nursery operations is highly dependent on the cost of these inputs. Additionally, smallholder farmers earn money through the sale of firewood, honey, and cattle folders (Kinyili & Ndunda, 2021).
Numerous studies have evaluated the profitability of smallholder tree nursery establishments using gross earnings, net profit margins, and a cost-benefit analysis (Kassa, 2015; Adeleke, 2007). Nonetheless, such appraisals continue to be scarce among Kenya’s smallholder farmers.
From the preceding discussion of the relationships between tree seedlings, tree yields, and income generated, it is clear that the relationship is never straightforward, and that when designing tree nursery establishments that are most likely to be adopted by smallholder farmers, it is frequ
Impacts of Trans-Atlantic Trade
Impacts of Trans-Atlantic Trade
Student’s Name
Institution of Affiliation
Course Name and Number
Instructor’s Name
Introduction
The Atlantic slave trade began as a limited trade enterprise centered on exchanging African products for a small number of EU items such as arms, silk and so on, for example, gold or slaves. By the end of the 17th century, this trade has become a major market for the barbaric capture and transfer of millions of Africans to America. The long-term effects of slave trading for African and American societies. Africans were abducted from their homelands and then sold to America as slaves. Slavery across the Atlantic began in the 1500s when Europeans began to move more and more to Africa and enslaved Africans as slaves. Trade of slaves is becoming increasingly significant, leading to a sophisticated European slave trading and sales system. A prominent backbone for this trading activity was the middle pass between Africa’s western ports, the Caribbean, and South America. The Atlantic Slave Trade took place across the Atlantic, from Western Europe to West Africa, where goods were transported.
Slaves were then transported to the new world and replaced by goods transported via the middle passage to Europe. In the 19th century, the abolition of slavery brought the so-called triangular trade to an end. The Europeans imprisoned and sold these slaves in an auction and mostly killed or left to die slaves who seemed to be “weaker.” According to the Gilder Lehrman Institute for American History, about 12.5 million slaves were enslaved between 1500 and 1800 in Africa, with more than 10.7 million shipped to America for sale. Slavery, in combination with natural treatment and severe labor, has had a negative effect on Africans; families have been torn apart, young families have died of malnutrition, African slaves have been depopulated, etc. In Africa and America, slavery and the slave trade have hurt African society in several ways. The slave trade in the Atlantic was inspired by social, political, and economic influences.
Impacts of Atlantic Trade on Africans
In Africa, families have been torn apart and forced into slavery and exile. In the absence of their parents, children were left to take care of themselves, the vast number of missing people harmed the economy, and Africans were fearful of another round of slave raids. According to the Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History, “infant and child mortality rates among slave children in the south were double those of white children.” In the first year of life, half of all slave children died (Blaydes, 2016). Chronic malnutrition was a significant contributor to the high infant and child mortality rates. Slave babies were born with a total birth weight of fewer than 5.5 pounds, which is considered very poor by today’s standards. “These slave traders have had a negative effect on children born to slave parents since birth.” While one would think that trade between Africa and Europe will benefit the economy, it has harmed Africa’s economy in the long run.
Furthermore, the loss of approximately 50 million Africans resulted in the collapse of the African economy. The population has fallen sharply due to slave raids and people fleeing abduction; the economy suffers as a result of the lack of people. No continent can afford to continue losing so many people without incurring high costs. Some parts of Africa remain underdeveloped to this day, and the history of the slave trade helps to understand why. Furthermore, due to population scarcity, the remaining population was dispersed and placed in precarious situations.
“Furthermore, the increase in fighting among African groups contributed to a decrease in population,” says School Work Helper. Africans started raiding smaller villages in search of slaves, capturing and trading them to satisfy European demand for slaves. West Africans are becoming vulnerable and isolated from their own society as a result of the raiding of cities, which has resulted in civil unrest.” People in African society began turning on one another as a result of their fear. In response to economic challenges, teenage deaths, and cruel treatment, Africans were stereotyped as “savages” and ignorant of reason; this racist concept still exists in some parts of America today.1865 was the year in which the 13th Amendment passed; this was the amendment that ended slavery and introduced newfound freedom to African Americans. Although the hard labor and whipping was gone, African Americans still faced difficult situations. Racism and bigotry still exists to this day within America even though slavery has ended. All the years and slave trade and oppression permanently left scars within the African American society.
The slave trading and slavery, to some close-minded individuals, left the idea that people of color, in this case the African Americans, were incapable of many things and ‘savages.’ Due to the radical viewpoint whites had/have on people of color, racism exists to this day (Obikili, 2016). We witness racism in schools, the work place, and our justice system and so on. The black society is one that has been diminished and deprived from the very start; this degradation continues in present time. On ATLANTA BLACK STAR, a former history Professor made a wise remark concerning the slave trade influence on contemporary black cultures, “Another way slavery affects Africans in America today is because it never stopped. The same institutions, dominance, white dominance, and overseer culture has never ended since the American system of justice, business, banks, faith, and industry has been modeled on the institution of slavery.” This is a thought that never entered my mind; this dumbfounded me because it’s simply the facts; the structures we have set up today concerning courts, rules, etc., were developed during the period in which slavery was heavily relied on. In one direction or another, society appears to be wrongfully hostile to the black cultures due to colonialism and bigotry.
Slavery remains in many areas of Africa to this day. “We think of slavery as a forgotten tradition, an illustration of the Roman colonies or American plantations from the 18th century, but the practice of enslaving human beings as property persists. According to a full recent survey by the Australian-based Walk Free Foundation, 29.8 million people now live as slaves.” While some countries in West Africa have tried to eliminate slavery, it is still reasonably normalized in some regions. Moreover, from a personal perspective, it seems that the slavery that existed with the use by Europeans of Africans led African cultures to turn against each other even now. This need for slavery is truly disturbing that it still lived in 2018. In addition to causing slave trafficking to turn toward African cultures, history remains a matter for African American citizens.
Author Alma Carten made a respectable statement in her essay on The New Republic, “Since slavery the church in an America that has been dealing with the lingering consequences of white supremacy has been a powerful force for the Black survival… In events like Charleston, the growing body of literature focuses on the lack of genuine debates around slavery and their history in the US, as well as the mental wellbeing effect of remission of white supremacy and the suppression of justifiable emotions of anger and frustration – whether they be horrendous acts of violence or subtle micro-aggressions.” How does a whole race have complete and accurate redemption for surprising acts of other ancestors? The suffering and sense of injustice will still linger in the minds of the black communities. In addition, Alma Carten from the New Republic notes that “…black adults experience extreme psychological depression 20 percent higher than white adults and feel sorrowful, helpless and useless than their white partners. And yet the effect of bigotry on mental health is still reluctant to be confronted straight away.” This is proof that there is a connection between bigotry and black African Americans’ mental health. The emotions of injustice and worthlessness will prevent several African Americans from prospering, which are disastrous. In all matters, it is profoundly deplorable how certain African cultures have been turned against one another by slave trading and the sense of depression and lack of value in the minds of many African Americans.
Effect on African Economies
Much of the slaves came from inside the nation, and the profits were divided between slave owners and slave dealers, both Africans. Because of the low slave prices they paid, the money they needed to feed, transport, or hold them, and the high mortality ratio, it is unclear why the slave traders did not recruit and keep them for themselves instead of selling to other countries, to produce products for the domestic market (Da Silva, 2013). There was pressure from outside the country, but the national disorder also threw the people into confusion in the hinterland. Coastal slave traders took advantage of the selling of slaves. On the other hand, farmers and those who live in the country have been impacted by the people’s losses and the resulting economic loss. No productivity is an excellent example of agriculture. It’s important to note that the effects of political fragmentation aren’t always seen as a bad thing (“Science and the politics of transatlantic trade conflict’’). Democratic reform has been aided by the introduction of checks and balances, as well as a more evenly dispersed political authority. However, since broad coalitions are needed and coalitions are harder to form in more politically divided societies, broken societies can find it more difficult to carry out controls, balance, or redistribute political power. The slave trade offered wealth creation opportunities for anyone who could mobilize people to raid or organize kidnappings of other towns and villages, which caused substantial political friction and the disintegration of political units. For example, slave trade has been suggested to play a role in wars that led to the disintegration of the Yoruba state. Researchers have also found statistical evidence that countries with a high rate of slave trade have a higher proportion of separate groups today.
‘Certainly, the slave trade has contributed to the creation of a warrior state more arbitrary and autoritarian, it has widened social struggles and violence and led to population decline, reduced production, and increased exposure to starvation,’ writes Martin A. Klein, citing Boubacar Barry. Eventually, however, the production of different goods returned to those who could afford and feed slaves, and Africa started to export products such as hides, gum, and cotton cloth. While slaves have made these things, they have not contributed to economic growth (Inwood, 2015).
It became clear that the whole country could not rebound. The lack of competitiveness helps to achieve satisfaction, crime, poverty and eventually societal militarisation. Slave trading has transformed the political system by combining an administrative elite with a “warrior class whose primary aim was to raid the slaves.” The slave trade contributed to a series of incidents that are now evident throughout the continent’s underdevelopment. The continent cannot grow markets or expand the general marketing of business practices when there are no inhabitants and resulting consequences. Africa has struggled to live up to other currencies and cannot extend its economy to cover foreign exchange and maintain continental stability. On the other side, they encouraged the West to flourish by supplying extra human work. As a consequence, Africa was unwilling to step further both internally and abroad.
Social Effects of Atlantic slave trade
The growing divide between social classes was reflected in trade. Inikori believes that trade in the islands has led to growth and stability. This contrasted sharply with the suffering and difficulties experienced by the raided people. Slave property became the foundation for economic prosperity, and poor Africans were unable to survive. The brave and corrupt, like “slave soldiers,” would thrive only. The continent’s sexual demography was also changed as a result of the exchange. Compared to the proportion of men and women slaves in the West Indies between 1781 and 1798, Inikori found that “the annual export of women is of a magnitude that would dramatically reduce the capacity of the region.”
Conclusion
In a nutshell, Atlantic slavery has a profound impact on African cultures. It was initially developed as a small enterprise and became a barbaric and demonic mechanism in which African human and economic resources and those of Europe and Africa were robbed in return for goods and a few slaves (Green,2016). In order to meet Europe’s growing demand, African societies began a trade process which hindered their economic, political, and Social growth through mass-produced slavery. As a result, Africa’s agriculture has become a monoculture based on people buying, and trade has helped inflate the economy of the continent. The formerly stable and developed nations of the world have therefore lost unity and been divided by internal and external tensions that still affect the continent today. Note that the Atlantic exchange is responsible for the economic and social issues of contemporary Africa. Had Atlantic trade followed by imperialism and colonization taken root in Africa, an incomparable conflict would never have occurred between African cultures, ethnic communities and governments as well as the subversion of social and sex roles due to such disorder.
References
Inwood, K., & Keay, I. (2015). Transport costs and trade volumes: Evidence from the trans-Atlantic iron trade, 1870–1913. The Journal of Economic History, 95-124.
ACEMOGLU, D., JOHNSON, S., & ROBINSON, J. The Rise of Europe: Atlantic Trade, Institutional Change.
Da Silva, D. B. D. (2013). The Atlantic slave trade from Angola: a port-by-port estimate of slaves embarked, 1701–1867. The International journal of African historical studies, 46(1), 105-122.
Blaydes, L., & Paik, C. (2016). The impact of Holy Land Crusades on state formation: war mobilization, trade integration, and political development in medieval Europe. International Organization, 551-586.
Science and the politics of transatlantic trade conflict. (n.d.). Risk Regulation, Science, and Interests in Transatlantic Trade Conflicts. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137034175.0015Obikili, N. (2016). The trans-Atlantic slave trade and local political fragmentation in Africa. The Economic History Review, 69(4), 1157-1177. https://doi.org/10.1111/ehr.12328Green, T. (n.d.). Rethinking the Trans-Atlantic slave trade from a cultural perspective. The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139016407.003