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Hohokam Canal System
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Hohokam Canal System
Abstract
At about the time Christ emerged people began moving into the Gila and Salt River valleys. Very little is in public knowledge about these people that begun the initial small hamlets above the Salt River along its terraces. They are believed to have lived a sedentary agricultural life style through instituting fields along the Salt River margins. They are most likely to have depended on flood waters for their farming. They farmed on wet soils in places that had been swamped when floods and running water bloated their rivers further than their banks. It is feasible that by AD 50 they introduced a competent technology: canal irrigation. This innovation would later lead to the novel Southern Arizona prehistoric culture christened Hohokam. Canal irrigation had previously been employed by people in Southern Mexico who lived along small drainages and rivers. However, their canal systems never arrived at the sophistication and size of the Hohokam Canal System.
The Hohokam Canal System
The earliest Hohokam Canal Systems are believed to have been small canals that were closely located near rivers. In this kind of predisposition the earliest canals must have been especially disposed to demolition through floods. The first large Canals were designed by Hohokam irrigation engineers between A.D. 650 and 750. These canals had the capacity to transport large water quantities onto the Salt River second or upper terrace. By A.D 750-950 a period referred to as the early colonial period, large incorporated canal systems had been established in both the southern and northern sides of the Salt River. These canals were characterized by their large sizes and their monumental shapes. Most of them were over 13 miles in their length with the largest amongst the Hohokam canals being 21 miles about 33km in length. Two large ancient canals are still conserved in part of the four waters located in the southern part of the Archaeological Park and the Pueblo grand museum (Ackerly and Randall 34).
Location of the Hohokam Canal Systems
The Canals are located in the Phoenix valley of Southern Arizona. Hot dry regions in the world have generated some of the most outstanding pre-industrial civilizations. Arizona’s southern desserts are not an exception to this phenomenon. The pertinently named modern Phoenix which is today the fifth largest city in the United States of America, stems not from ashes but the ruins of what is believed to have been the most agriculturally productive and populous valley in the west way before 1600 CE (Breternitz 45).
When the early archeologist Frank Hamilton entered the Salt River in the 1890s he climbed on top of an earthly monument on what would later become latter day Phoenix. He exclaimed that he had discovered one of the most far-reaching ancient settlements that had not been seen before. Before them toward the south, north and east a long series of house mounds lay extended in endless successions. Entrepreneurs that arrived from the Eastern part of the US several decades earlier did not only come across house mounds but also the previous courses of the most immense canals that had ever been built in pre Columbian America. They later enacted large scale irrigation through the laying out of new canals in the footprints of the pre-historic ones. This triggered the growth of what would be the Phoenix City (Haury 123).
In 1922 the City of Phoenix City Engineer Turney Omar used the canals early maps in combination with his knowledge of the ancient Hohokam to publish the first primeval map of the antique canals and ruins of the Salt River valley. The most far-reaching records were published by Midvale Frank an archaeologist who dedicated his life to jotting down traces of the Hohokam as the remains of their culture were ruined by the increasing expansion of urban growth and modern agriculture (Howard 234).
When the first farmers, explorers and trappers penetrated the Salt River valley, they were quick to note the remarkable ruins left behind by the Hohokam. Villages that contained platform mounts, trash mounts and elliptical ball courts covered open ceramic pots and other artifacts that were present in the entire valley. Extending from the river was a vast structure of deserted Hohokam canals (Masse 408).
The ancient canals and ruins were a cause of pride to the untimely settlers who envisaged their robust agricultural civilization taking center stage as the legendary phoenix bird from the Hohokam society ashes. The canals were sometimes used as Wagon roads. Contrastingly, they also created unwanted channels when these areas started being developed by modern day farmers ((Ackerly and Randall 36).
Culture and Society
The extraordinary people referred to by archeologists as the Hohokam were the constructors of the huge canals, earthen monuments, and adobe houses in large amounts that extremely impressed the early visitors to the Salt River valley. From 400 to 1400 CE the Hohokam millennium the basin at the convergence of the Gila and Salt rivers formed the core of their cultural and geographic domains. For 100 decades the Hohokam sustained an acknowledgeable cultural identity amongst the many people who were inhabitants in the ancient south west and neighboring Northwestern Mexico (Breternitz 47).
The remains of polish to brown pottery with designs that are painted in red litter the Southern Arizona basin floors that are low lying. These remains are the most abundant and distinctive material remains of former Hohokam residents; Creative farmers who used a mixed blend of agricultural strategies to farm their crops in the agricultural terrain. They in the end engineered irrigation networks outshined in size and breathe only by the Andean Canals. Apart from generating exclusive artifact styles the Hohokam set themselves apart from their ancestral Mogollon, Pueblo and most archaeological southwest cultures by the kind of public buildings in their big villages. The platform mounds and ball courts reflected the Hohokam community rituals and characteristic beliefs (Haury 127).
The fact that the Hohokam shared similar ways of assembling and adorning pottery as well as other forms of utilitarian design and canon styles shows that they were in close communication with each other and held common understanding of such matters. The fact that they shared farming and crop technologies indicates that they bowed to the same solutions in mitigating the challenges they faced in desert farming. Given that they built similar structures for their communal rituals means that they must have been guided by a mutual set of beliefs (Howard 240).
The unique archeological remains identifying Hohokam heartland stretch over a 30,000 expansive square in the southern half of Arizona an area that is larger than the modern day state of Southern Carolina. The Hohokam culture hallmarks are explicitly bounded by the upper reaches of the Growler Mountains to the west, the Verde and Agua Fria rivers to the north, the Mexican border to the south, the Mogollon rim to the northwest and the Dragoon Mountains to the south east (Masse 410).
In this far flung territory a lot of commonality has been found in archaeological remains, however they also exhibit some differences. Inhabitants of certain sectors chose only elements of the overall cultural package to integrate into their lives. For instance, in the northeastern part of the Hohokam territory is the Tonto basin whose inhabitants used red buff pottery but never constructed ball courts. However, they in the end erected platform mounds. Cultural practices were mixed up in the Tonto basin due to the migration of the Hohokam and the non Hohokam in this area (Ackerly and Randall 40).
When the Spanish explorers reached Hohokam territory in the 17th century they came across Native Americans with diverse lifestyles and languages. They included people speaking; Athabasca languages in western Apache, Piman languages in the central portion and Yuman languages in the Colorado River. This means that the Hohokam were not homogenous in all their cultural aspects (Breternitz 50).
However, the Hohokam remain remarkable in the world because amongst all ancient societies they are the only ones who hold the unique peculiarity of having constructed gigantic canal networks of up to 23 km in length and in the end irrigated large tracts of land to the tune of 80,000 acres. This was all in the absence of any ensuing level of societal complexity including the absence of a state government (Haury 130).
The Hohokam built earthen platform mounts and ball courts of expansive sizes in relation to those that have been found elsewhere around the globe. This was without an established administration. These monuments informed a distinct pattern to the Hohokam territorial landscape (Howard 301).
Construction of the Canal System
Information excavated in the recent past is providing new leads about the engineering of the Hohokam canal. The engineers in this project were zealously aware of the soil, the local topography, drainages, the dips and slopes. They harnessed a complicated knowledge of the water flow through channels as well a sequence of methods for ensuring that water was delivered in the field surfaces. Each method was suitable for a particular topographic setting for instance flat river terraces and steep slopes. These canal systems were developed in respect to the characteristics and needs of the environment (Masse 412).
The canal systems had a chain of physical elements. A wear was constructed at every point that the river met the canal. A wear is a kind of a dam that reaches but does not cross the river completely. The objective was to use it in raising the river’s water level and direct it into the canal. In the canal a head gate which refers to a large water control gate was built. This ensured that the amount of water that entered the canal was put under control. The major canals transported the water towards the fields and away from the river. Research indicates that major canals were conspicuously large at their junctions with the river; however, they tended to reduce in size as they advanced towards their finishing point (Ackerly and Randall 50).
Materials
The stone was scooped by hand through using huge wedge shaped pieces of stones which were referred to as stone hoes. Wooden digging sticks were also employed to ensure the soil was loosened. The soil was then taken away from the canals by use of large baskets. Discrepancies on the size of the simple leveling frame that has been employed in several preindustrial agrarian societies may have been employed to set up canal gradients. It is also believed that water was carried along in the canal in the course of construction in order to ensure that the soil was loosened. This meant that the system utilized more time and labor. The flooded canal was then dammed and the water permitted to disperse before resuming construction (Breternitz 50).
Exterior Design
Visitors to the Salt River valley are more often than not surprised when they come across a fertile agricultural region prospering in the arid Arizona desert. Nonetheless these contemporary agricultural precedents are not without a beginning. From AD 550 to 1460 the ancient Hohokam built one of the biggest and most complicated irrigation networks ever constructed by the use of ancient technology. By AD 1150 hundreds in miles of these incredible waterways generated green paths that stemmed from the Gila and Salt rivers. These green paths were dotted with huge platform mounts which made them gain a lot of attention from the local archaeologists (Haury 131).
When farmers purchased land areas that were affected by prehistoric canals they were premeditated and taken away from the purchase to counterbalance costs sustained in filling it. When the modern farmers began filling traces of the ancient canals a number of high-flying citizens started being interested in these archaic monuments. They developed maps that indicated the locations of mounds, canals and villages. This forms the foundation of the modern day Hohokam scholarship. Local farmers generated maps of the canals located on the southern side of the Salt River in what is the modern day Chandler, Tempe and Mesa (Howard 350).
Interior Design
Recent reconstructions of ancient canals indicate that about 900,000 cubic meters of soil could have been dug out while doing excavations for the major canals in both the classic and colonial periods. Apart from that it is also estimated that 500, 000 cubic meters of soil may have been excavated during the sedentary era (AD 850-1160).
The decrease in the amount of water that travelled in the canal through seepage, and evaporation, led to a reduction in the size of the channel that carried the water. When the channel was reduced the water’s velocity remained rather constant and was somehow between two fundamental brinks. The sides of the canal were eroded if the water was allowed to travel too fast. On the other hand, soil particles would settle out of the water if it was allowed to slow down. When this occurred the water canal silted up necessitating increased maintenance. Distribution canals were made to take water out of the major canal systems transporting it to the fields. They were also utilized in manipulating the relationship between the ground surface and the canal’s water level (Masse 413).
Several kinds of control features were used to manage water distribution systems. Diversion gates have been found at control features junctions to adjust the flow of water. Water control gates or tapons were usually erected in the distribution as well as the key canals. Whenever it was closed the tapon caused the water to back up and rise in altitude, this created head water. By using water control features the Hohokam created a very complicated irrigation system.
Labor Force
Construction of the Hohokam canal system necessitated a considerable amount of human labor. The amount of labor that was necessary for the construction of the Hohokam canal system partly relied on the amount of water that flowed in the Salt River at any one given point in time. In both the Classic and Colonial times the Hohokam went through various flooding periods of the Salt River. The floods more often than not annihilated the canals which had to be subjected to more redesigning and reconstructing faces. The amount of labor and time that was required to build the major canals cannot be estimated (Ackerly and Randall 52).
Various factors including the number of continuous days, the amount of soil excavated by one worker in a day, the number of persons working per day, the number of discontinuous days and the amount of time workers worked on each day over the entire period in which the work was done all impact on the approximation of labor and time exhausted in the entire period in which the Hohokam Canal system was constructed. Since one individual has the capacity to excavate three cubic meters of soil in a day, the construction of multi canals would need over 25,000 person days. This indicates that some canals took so many years to be completed. It is estimated that it may have taken 1 million person days of coordinated labor to build the trunk lines of only one major Phoenix basin canal system. This does not include the amount of labor and time needed to make repairs after floods and storms, build secondary lines in the fields, as well as clean up the yearly build up of canal sediments (Breternitz 60).
The operation, construction and maintenance of the canal systems must have thus required a considerable and well managed effort. Individuals from all villages along the major canals must have contributed to the first construction and to the expected maintenance of the canals wears and head gates, resolving of confined disputes, and the establishment of water scheduling and allocations. Small and more local groups of farmers would organize for the building and preservation of distribution and branch canals. Unlike most traditional groups in northwestern and southwestern Mexico the Hohokam must have had a sophisticated sociopolitical structure.
If It Were Built Today
The Hohokam canal was built in AD 550 to 1460, and rebuilt in the 1920s. As much as the rebuilding was about 10 decades ago its construction is not very distinct from the modern day construction of canal systems. The Hohokam employed several techniques that are being utilized by today’s engineers and would probably continue being used in the future. For instance the use of diversion gates in the Hohokam canals is still being employed in modern day canal systems. Apart from that the damming of canals to allow flooded water to disperse also occurs in modern day construction of canal systems. Additionally human labor is also being used to excavate soil and stones from the canals. As much as more developed machines are being used to replace the stone hoes and digging sticks the idea is still the same (Haury 145).
Today rather than excavate the canals with stone hoes and digging sticks for 25,000 human working days modern day sophisticated construction cranes can excavate an entire canal for less than a year. Additionally, the kind of transport system in use today is more efficient and sophisticated than what was being used in the ancient ages. Dump trucks and flat bed trailers have now replaced the human labor that was used to move the debris, stones and waste for many years (Howard 360).
In modern day construction of canals permanent dykes are constructed to dam the canals unlike in the ancient days when the damming was temporarily done. If reconstruction of the canal is done today 120 million tons of soil is likely to be excavated. This is more than half the amount of soil that was excavated during the ancient construction of the canal. Apart from that given the efficiency and sophistication of modern day machines, the project is likely to create 40, 000 new jobs (Masse 415).
In addition today’s designers use computers to aid them in their work in comparison to the ancient age engineers. They are capable of stimulating, drafting, animating and estimating different angles of building the canals that the early engineers had to draft on the ground. Modern day engineers know how the canal is likely to react under different amounts of water before even they break the ground. The advantages that modern day Engineers have is that they can adopt the knowledge of the ancient Engineers and improve on it to come up with better and more efficient and cost effective canals (Ackerly and Randall 56).
Works Cited
Ackerly, Neal W., Jerry B. Howard and Randall H. McGuire La Ciudad Canals: A Study of Hohokam Irrigation Systems at the Community Level. Arizona State University Anthropological Field Studies, No. 17. Tempe (2010): 34-56 Print.
. Breternitz, Cory D. Prehistoric Irrigation in Arizona: Symposium 1988. Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology No. 17, Phoenix. (2009): 45-76. Print.
Haury, Emil W. The Hohokam: Desert Farmers and Craftsmen, The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.(2006): 123-154. Print.
Howard, Jerry B. and Gary Huckleberry The Operation and Evolution of an Irrigation System: The East Papago Canal Study. Soil Systems Publications in Archaeology No. 18, Phoenix. (2009): 234-456. Print.
Masse, Bruce Prehistoric Irrigation Systems in the Salt River Valley, Arizona. Science 214(23): (2008): 408-415. Print.
Hofstede Framework and Individualism versus collectivism
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Hofstede Framework and Individualism versus collectivism
Culture plays a significant role in international as well local business. It has been defined in several ways. Culture could be defined as a collective encoding of the mind that differentiates an individual, a member of a group, a nation or a state from the others. In this case the ideal state that the model tries to explain is Italy. Italy is a country of varying regional characteristics and remarkable beauty (Trompenaars, & Woolliams 2004). It is a place of that holds historical pride and cultural achievement. Italian culture allows all the aspects of life as a result those intending to mix effectively into Italian community and culture or even to break the Italian business market as compared to Australian Business market. Understanding the Italian culture is a vital component for the business success hence hofstede Framework will play part is defining the culture.
Individualism versus collectivism
Italian culture is greatly described as an individualistic, meaning that it holds much emphasis on close family ties and individual responsibility. This means that Italians tend to care of their immediate family first and themselves. With respect to business context, individualism affects Italians preferences to do business with individuals there are already familiar with. Collectivism as a culture is not preferred in Italian business hence investors should consider not to take this concern. For individual or groups intending to invest in Italy one should consider individual preferences and needs before starting businesses.
Power Distance
Power distance is identified as the extend to which the powerful members of organizations and institution such as families accept that power is distributed unequally. As if Italy the power distance is not evident as the organizations such as family groups are the once in access to the power. In order to have a flourishing business in Italy investors should be able to integrate this power source so that their business could be in order.
Uncertainty Avoidance
Italy has a high score of on uncertainty avoidance; meaning that Italians are not comfortable during ambiguous situations. Despite the fact that Italian civil and penal codes are complicated, formality in Italian society is very important so as to that of Australia which is also high. Thus, investors should take this in consideration when trying to bring business on board.
Long-term Orientation
The Italian culture scores less that 50 making it short term orientation culture that drives great concern to have great respect for tradition and history as well as the focus on fast or quick impacts in the future. Thus, investors should consider an historical short-term point of view. This affects business contracts and strategies. Business investors should consider short term contracts and strategies since the law of the land considers this perspective.
Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck Framework
Culture can be best explained in the intricate interaction of values and behaviour assumptions of the society. For the essence of determining the Ideal cultural that can withstand business investments, Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck Framework helps to explain this key concept (Varnum et al. 2010).
Relation to nature
The people of Italy have the duty to control nature, subjugation, and work together with nature to uphold balance and harmony. When undertaking business meeting in Italy it is obvious to express open disagreements for establishing relationships and not making business decisions. For example, when greeting business colleagues in Italy one should use their last names or professional titles.
Time orientation
The rule of punctuality in the Italian business environment is taken seriously. For example, even though you as an investor are expected to arrive on time to any business conference or meeting, the Italian counterparts may not adhere to this rule hence when investing time consideration should be apprehended. It is also evident that the Italian legal system and bureaucracy are slow; therefore investors should take note that business actions and decisions may take a longer time.
Control and trust
Italian people trust their own business and people when conducting business thus, for an individual or group willing to start business they should consider the trust of the people by employing Italian staff as well as use their raw materials. Despite the fact that Italian culture is dominated with personal control they have they own preferences (Rugman & Collinson 2009).
Accomplish and Activity
The people of Italy concentrate for the moment and striving for personal goals as it can be reflected from their individualistic thinking hence when establishing business one should consider the preference and accomplishment of individuals.
Responsibility
Italian businesses have great responsibility and concern for oneself and individualist relationship. For investors to establish outstanding businesses in Italy they should consider group and individual differences before commencing investment procedures.
Space
The physical space that exists in Italy is both private and public. In Italian case, the country lies on private space since most of organizations and business institutions are family owned hence merging and business decisions should be highly considered to this individual since they own 75% of Italian businesses.
References
Rugman, A. M., & Collinson, S. 2009. International business. Pearson Education.
Trompenaars, F., & Woolliams, P. 2004. Business across cultures. Wiley. com.
Varnum, M. E., Grossmann, I., Kitayama, S., & Nisbett, R. E. 2010. The Origin of Cultural Differences in Cognition The Social Orientation Hypothesis. Current directions in psychological science, 19(1), 9-13.
Hoda indicates that masculinity is politically changing as well as historically fraught that attempts to define its incomplet
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Hoda indicates that masculinity is politically changing as well as historically fraught that attempts to define its incomplete and deficient role in the society. The changes exiting in this division is shown in Hoda Barakat’s the Stone through the protagonist Khalil who is not ready to accept his identity imposed to him by the society (Aghacy 1998 pp. 14). In the novel, one of the key themes that is indicated by Hoda deals with and also criticizes the gender roles in Lebanon during the civil war. As Fayyad succinctly address it, the novel presents the war as a situation whereby gender roles are over determined with the participation of the community through basic fighting (fighting for basic needs in the community) touch stone of masculinity identity (164).
Nevertheless, it is evident that the novel male protagonist is not at ease with the male roles since he portrays aggressive male role and consequently into a female inner space. Khalil who lives in a good apartment in Beirut at the time of the war come up with psychological and physical feminine traits. Because the inner spheres that is always considered the feminine represents the sage place that Khalil adopts to protect himself. He spends most of the time in the apartment dreaming and cooking. After every free time he finds himself cleaning up his room whenever a battle ends. Khalil feels the need for cleanliness and order, this feeling grows until it leads to an obsession. After every battle, his room is fresh and new as if the builders had just left the room. This is a very clear idea that other men are not up to take the candle of men jobs and prefer taking female jobs hence masculinity is not determined by gender but by the roles and individual plays.
Unable to fight in wars in the street, he tries to develop order in doors so that he can preserve form the violence in the street. There are types of masculinity that are presented in the novel. The first type of masculinity is made up of youths who broke the door of conventional masculinity and come to manhood via the door of history, that shapes the destiny a region of importance on the world and the second type consists of those Khalil’s age that have got a grip on the important things in life (Barakat, 12). This is a true significance of the types of masculinity present in the world. According to the novel masculinity differs with generation of people. For example, it indicates that the old in the society have a male masculinity of fighting for the society in most of its needs such as during war and other basic family issue but there other is the generation Y (Khalil age bracket that cannot fight for the society they are living in creating a gap between gender responsibilities.
Hoda needed to show the theme of masculinity in different versions, but not according to the roles individuals play. The most evident one is the ideal case of Khalil who is ready to take of his personal issue not support the society he is in, making other to suffer and fight in the street while he is tidying his room. According to the novel, the author used masculinity to show how characters in the novel behave when it come to general responsibilities. For example, he concludes that people like Khalil are cowards who cannot fight for the society while there are those in the streets who feel the pinch of the society they are coming from hence able to fight for their need.
Khalil lacks the access to attractive versions of masculinity that converts the life of youths around the world to a life explode hence he remains alone in his narrow passing place in a feminine state of submission to other. He is reluctant to accept the mark of gender hence finds refuge of making personal choices in life as compared to other in the society he is living. For example, he remembers a time that his voice broke; to him it represented a moment, which he considers that his sex had broken (Barakat 142). According to the author characters of individuals in the novel was evident with the version of masculinity they showed to the society.
His passivity and longing for submission is apparent when it comes to his sexuality. He dreams of the men he loves and always keeps waiting for their visits but he fails to take about his feelings or take any type of action as a man. This is a clear indication that the author defines Khalil as an example of many other people in the world including those of his age and those older than him in the age bracket. The author defines the plot of the novel by different roles that man in the society portray, the plot is divided into two distinct groups of those accepting masculine roles to those against these roles in the society. In addition, the author uses masculinity concepts to define the roles of characters in the novel depicting those that support contemporary individuals and their masculinity traits and those in fear of masculinity roles in the society such as Khalil.
The other novel that the paper seeks to use is the Birthmark by Nathaniel Hawthorne (p. 23). The symbolism shown by the author is very distinct with the difference in masculinity of the characters in the novel. The nature of masculinity is shown in the face of Georgiana’s. it shows the struggle between science and nature, via his repeated attempts of removal of masculinity. The class between nature and science shows the concept of women and man, through the femininity of nature and masculine characters of the globe of science.
All through the story, nature is seen as feminine and is present through Georgiana. This is the same way how science depicts masculine and symbolizes through Aylmer. The dilemma or the conflict between nature and science of the attempts that men have in control of women. According to Eckstein, modern science is full of masculine endeavourers as well as nature is considered as metaphorically female (512). All through history, people refer to nature with the preceding word of “nature” making individual to belief that nature can only be considered feminine. A true appeal of such beliefs is evident in the contemporary world, where women are now fighting for gender rights all over the world. Rucker sees how Georgia frightens Aylmer, it is seen from the novel that Aylmer fears sexuality (443), especially feminine sexuality. He is concerned with managing his wife and her looks. This shows the theme of women versus men.
Aylmer sees Georgiana as an object for perfection with the exception of birthmark in him. Before meeting her all his was dreaming was science and the art of perfecting nature. He was posed with the degree of belief of man ultimate control of nature (p 29). This clearly shows what he ought to perfect from the exiting nature. The author tries to define the difference between men and women perception and stereotype of nature evident among the characters in the novel. The author comes with clear description of the role that main character such as Aylmer and Georgiana have towards depicting the roles that gender roles have to the society.
In order to balance the considerations of Georgiana and the mark, Nathaniel includes the opinion of the masculine observer; if the birthmark did not show the admiration of the contented selves, then the problem lies to the gender roles that nature has indicated in the society of the type of relief that the character presents in the novel. According to Nathaniel the information, streaming from nature is coupled with different meaning in the world of science. He concludes that Aylmer is a person who wishes to define masculinity as the only source of changing nature. Based on the above principles between nature and science, the author used masculinity to define the plot of the novel. He divided the plot into several potions defining the role of masculinity in Gender roles.
It can be concluded that masculinity plays a significant role in shaping one’s life both as nature and as science. Both novels have indicated the fear of masculine roles among characters in the novels hence showing a sense of masculine responsibility. It is also evident that both are using masculinity in developing plots and character representation.
Works Cited
Aghacy, S. (1998). Hoda Barakat’s” The Stone of Laughter”: Androgyny or Polarization?. Journal of Arabic Literature, 185-201.
Erskine, John. “Nathaniel Hawthorne.” In Leading American Novelists. New York: Books For Libraries Press, 1968.