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Film Censorship First Amendment Violations That Resulted In Self-Regulation of a Rapidly Expanding Industry Requiring Structu
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Film Censorship: First Amendment Violations That Resulted In Self-Regulation of a Rapidly Expanding Industry Requiring Structure and Censorship
Until 1968, the Production Code Administration (PCA) acted as an oversight body over the making of American motion pictures. The body aimed at ensuring that the films complied with morality rules and did not promote lewd behavior, which contradicted the teachings of the church. The content of films was increasingly becoming violent and lewd; there was a need for regulation to curb the trend and ensure that films promoted morally accepted behavior. The surge for censorship was especially high when sound tracks were introduced in films because the sound emphasized the plot and mood of the film. For instance, erotic scenes where heightened by slow romantic music, while thrillers had high tempo music. The proponents of censorship were not opposed to the music, but argued that the sound and music in the film overplayed seductive overtures and increased the immoral value of the film. The progression of the film industry to produce more violent and lewd necessitated censorship; this has all sort of effects on the film industry.
Ironically, the films appealed to massive audiences, especially the youth who were rebelling against social norms, which had been passed on from their parents and society. Noticeably, women wore shorter and more revealing clothes than their mothers and grandmothers; this could be attributed to the rapid explosion of late night entertainment by live bands. The growth of the economy, which allowed people to have more disposable incomes, allowed most Americans the luxury of entertainment in the form of alcohol, fashionable clothes, and access to music among other luxuries. A new sense of sexual freedom in which sexuality was increasingly accepted and openly displayed was also becoming popular.
A New Breed of Film-Viewers
After the First World War, America experienced rapid economic boom, an influx of luxury items, and the need for social status, which allowed people to seek new ways to display their wealth and the newly acquired status (Hwang 392). Most people embraced the love of arts, music, fashion, and entertainment, which were a new frontier as a way of showcasing their newly acquired wealth and status, and let them influence their lives. For once, women felt empowered and free to express and embrace their sexuality in the new world that celebrated beautiful women who were seen as sexual icons. These changes were not entertainment, but a cultural revolution that was about to take over the world as the film industry was pressing for new frontiers.
The film industry was also taking advantage of the growth of the economy, sexual revolution, and an unprecedented public fascination in criminal behavior. With these changes, there was a need among filmmakers to distribute their films not only locally, but also internationally; there was an increasing demand both locally and internationally for films. For these films to be viewed and distributed outside the film theaters there was a need for a censorship body. The role of the censorship body was to scrutinize and accept or reject the films that it did not perceive to be suitable for public screening.
The Need for Censorship
The church put pressure on the government to regulate and censor the content of films. The church was led by Father Daniel A. Lord who was an editor of a religious magazine that scrutinized motion pictures (Grant and Katz 81). By 1934, the magazine has examined 133 films and cited indecent material such as premarital sex, violence, and adultery on its list. The depictions were contrary to the teachings of the church and were thought to have the potential to corrupt morals. The problem lay in the glamorization of sexual impropriety and criminal lifestyle. The church created the Catholic film code, which intended to influence filmmakers to produce films that reinforced good behavior and discouraged deviant behavior.
First Amendment versus Censorship
The imposition of the church on what was popularly viewed as a secular industry was considered as a perverse restraint on the freedom of expression. In Mutual Film Corporation vs. Industrial Commission of Ohio, a 1915 court case, the Supreme Court ruled that motion pictures were not classified under the press in the State of Ohio. The ruling began a long debate over whether censorship was an infringement of the First Amendment (Hwang 396). The film industry saw this as a threat and opted to self-regulate. In the century, the film industry found some reprieve, which was in the groundbreaking case of Burstyn vs. Wilson case of 1952. In the case, the Supreme Court overturned a ban on Roberto Rossellini’s film, The Miracle; the New York Board of Regents had termed the film as disrespectful to the Christian faith. The ruling was the first time that the Supreme Court favored the film industry (Grant and Katz 89).
The Supreme Court found that films are a major medium for the expression of ideas and should be entitled to the same First Amendment protection as traditional press. Successive rulings, which were in favor of the film industry and which solidified the court’s intentions to espouse the Constitution and the First Amendment followed the Supreme Court’s ruling. In 1959, the Supreme Court found that the adulterous liaisons in Louis Malle’s Les Amants were not obscene, and the film was entitled to First Amendment protection. By early 1960s, most Appellate courts at the state and federal level had consistently rejected the attempt to censor films as an attempt to promote religious and moral values.
Film Industry Self-Censorship
The court rulings in favor of the film industry did not mean that the push for censorship had been won. Despite the argument for first Amendment, there was pressure for censorship from other quarters other than the church. Educators and child psychologists were making a case against lewd and violent materials, which had a negative effect on the development of children. There was an increase in the cases of sexual promiscuity and violence among young offenders, which was attributed to the unregulated content they viewed on films (Couvares 167).
The opponents of censorship argued that it was being fuelled by political lobbyists trying to acquire political capital on the back of filmmakers. Others argued that it was filmmakers themselves who were trying to create a ‘bad publicity’ for their films just to turn around and screen them in other states where the rules were lax. No matter the way that one vied it, the filmmakers needed to take charge of the censorship, otherwise they would risk an oversight body that would stifle creativity, impose high fines for offenders, and cripple the film industry. All the stakeholders in the film industry put concerted effort to design a self-regulation mechanism in order for the industry to survive.
The first attempt to regulate the content of films occurred in the June of 1924; it was achieved through the generation and implementation of a joint declaration, which was known as the ‘Formula.’ The purpose of the declaration was to discourage any effort to create films of an indecent nature. The industry was trying to encourage good morals and discourage deviant behavior. By 1927, a code of ‘Don’ts and Be Careful,’ was compiled to assist in the making of films (MPPDA). The code did not make any inferences, but plainly stated the accepted elements of a motion picture and which subjects should be treated with caution. Finally, in 1930, Hays created a more comprehensive Production Code. The new code took elements from both the ‘Formula’ and the ‘Don’ts and Be Careful’ and added more restrictions in the production of a film. The production of a film begins at the conception of a story, which leads to the writing of a script and the development of the plot. The new code was keen on regulating the film along the storyline to the development of the plot. Ideally, a plot was not to side with or present evil in an attractive manner.
The film industry was interrupted briefly by the Second World War and the ensuing depression. Afterwards, the economy and the film industry recovered from the two setbacks. By 1956, the newly instituted Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) continued to loosen the requirements by filmmakers to comply with morality guidelines. The MPAA established a rating system in 1968 (Motion Picture Association of America, Inc.). Backed by the Supreme Court rulings and a liberalizing population, MPAA was now operating as a business entity rather than an oversight body; its decision making process was not aligned to moral obligations, but business obligations of the production companies (Lev 112). MPAA relaxed the prohibitions on lewdness and deviant behavior like drug use; it argued that censorship should not apply to all viewers across the board. The MPAA instituted ratings based on ages for any content in films. The purpose of the ratings was to ensure that the MPAA could still be covered under the First Amendment statutory, but still follow the production code.
In conclusion, censorship has affected the film industry in many ways; for instance, it has led to film ratings, which have placed an additional requirement on the industry. The film industry cannot also restrict itself to producing blockbusters; it has to produce films, which pass information and allow for creativity. It has to produce films, which open the children’s eyes to new places, ideas, and cultures (Motion Picture Association of America, Inc.). On the contrary, the more X or R rated a film is, the more money it makes; violence, corruption, adultery, teenage sex, and lasciviousness appeal to a larger audience (Couvares 223). Most films on education, issues affecting humanity, and self-development tools have been relegated to a category known as Documentaries. Documentaries are connoted as informative, are for an insignificant audience, which has the time and interest, but are boring and not associated with trend makers. The role of films as a channel to pass on information should be reviewed. There needs to be an analysis of the quality of information that is passed on by films. If films are to receive the same protection under the First Amendment as the press, there has to be a criterion for evaluation. If films are primarily for entertainment, different expectations for the industry should be determined. As the 21st century progresses on, there is a deep concern as artistic value of the filming industry even amidst the need to provide entertainment. Even in its current format, film is a form of art and an authoritative medium of communication in its time.
Works Cited
Couvares, Francis. Film Censorship and American Culture. 2nd ed. New York, NY: University of Massachusetts Press, 2006. Print.
Doherty, Thomas. Hollywood’s Censor: Joseph I. Breen & the Production Code Administration. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2007. Print.
Grant Robert and Katz Joseph. The Great Trials of the Twenties: The Watershed Decade in American Courtrooms. London: Da Capo Press, 1998. Print.
Hwang, Jessica. From Spectacle to Speech: The First Amendment and Film Censorship from 1915-1952. Hastings Constitutional Law Quarterly 41.2 (2014): 381-418. Print.
Lev, Peter. The Fifties: Transforming the Screen 1950-1959. (The History of the American Cinema Series 7). New York, NY: University of California Press, 2006. Print.
Motion Picture Association of America, Inc. FILM RATINGS: UNDERSTANDING THE FILM RATINGS. 2014. Web. 18 Apr. 2014. <http://www.mpaa.org/film-ratings/>.
Faster dissolved Oxygen, Test Kit
Faster dissolved Oxygen, Test Kit
The purpose
The purpose of my project is to determine if there is any significant difference in dissolved oxygen (DO) levels as measured by the traditional HACH(r) method or the newly developed CHEMets(r) test kit under typical field conditions.
Hypothesis
My hypothesis is that there is no significant difference in dissolved oxygen (DO) levels as measured by the traditional HACH(r) method or the newly developed CHEMets(r) test kit under typical field conditions.
Review of Literature
“Ours is a watery world, and we, its dominant species, are walking sacks of sea water. The presence of large amounts of liquid water on Earth make our planet unique in the solar system.” (Hill, 1992 p. 477)
People have recently become more concerned with preserving our earth for future generations. Even the government pitches in to help save our earth by enacting laws to help preserve our natural resources. There is local evidence that improved sewage treatment means improvement in water quality. Monitoring on a national level showed that large investments in point-source pollution control have yielded no statistically significant pattern of improvement in dissolved oxygen levels in water in the last 15 years. It may be that we are only keeping up with the amount of pollution we are producing. (Knopman, 1993)
The early biosphere was not pleasant for life because the atmosphere had low levels of oxygen. Photosynthetic bacteria consumed carbon dioxide and produced simple sugars and oxygen which created the oxygen abundant atmosphere in which more advanced life forms could develop. (Brown, 1994) The mystery of how Earth’s oxygen levels rose is very complex. Scientists don’t agree when or how the oxygen on earth got here, but we know we could not live without it. (Pendick, 1993) Oxygen is crucial for humans to survive. Dissolved oxygen is also crucial for most fish and aquatic organisms to survive. Dissolved oxygen is for them what atmospheric oxygen is for humans. If humans have no oxygen to breathe, they die. The same goes for fish. However, fish get their oxygen from the water, and humans get theirs from the atmosphere. (Mitchell and Stapp, 1992)
Different aquatic organisms need different levels of dissolved oxygen to thrive. For example, pike and trout need medium to high levels of dissolved oxygen. Carp and catfish are the exact opposite, needing only low levels of dissolved oxygen. (Mitchell and Stapp, 1992) Low levels of dissolved oxygen inhibit the growth of Asiatic clams. (Belanger, 1991) In the American River, too much dissolved oxygen resulted in mortality of salmonoid fishes. (Colt, Orwicz and Brooks, 1991) Brood catfish, or catfish raised on fish farms, are especially susceptible to low dissolved oxygen. Since catfish are a major food source for many people, their production is important. (Avault, 1993)
There are two main sources of dissolved oxygen: (1) the atmosphere -waves on lakes, rapidly moving rivers, and tumbling rivers all act to mix oxygen from the atmosphere with water; (2) aquatic plants – algae and benthic plants (bottom-rooted plants) deliver oxygen into the water through photosynthesis. The solubility of all gases, including oxygen, is inversely proportional to temperature which means that the solubility of gases goes down as the temperature goes up, and vice versa. The concentration of dissolved oxygen also varies directly with atmospheric pressure and atmospheric oxygen concentration. When the atmospheric pressure or atmospheric oxygen concentration goes up, the level of dissolved oxygen goes up. (Roskowski & Marshall, 1993) D.H. Farmer studied the fluctuation of dissolved oxygen content in a body of water before, during, and after a storm. During the storm, the increased wave activity increased the dissolved oxygen content. (Farmer and McNeil, 1993)
Turbulent flow in streams has caused most of the biocenogenesis (the environmentally determined characteristics of an organisms) to be represented by attached or benthic organisms. For this reason, a method of evaluating the role of benthic organisms in the total dissolved oxygen balance was created. Benthic plants play an important role in providing dissolved oxygen. These plants respire oxygen through photosynthesis. Benthic plants are plants such as cattail, bulrush, arrowhead, water lily, pond weeds, and muskgrass. (Nebel, 1990)
Many things can change the level of dissolved oxygen in a body of water. Dissolved oxygen levels rise from morning through afternoon as a result of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis stops at night, but animals and plants continue to respire and consume oxygen. Water temperature and volume of water also affect dissolved oxygen levels. Dry weather causes dissolved oxygen levels to decrease and wet weather causes dissolved oxygen levels to increase. (Mitchell and Stapp, 1990)
The breakdown of organic matter by bacteria decreases dissolved oxygen in the water and yet enriches the water with plant nutrients. A reasonable amount of breakdown is good, so the water won’t become oligotrophic or nutrient poor. But too much organic breakdown will decrease dissolved oxygen and leave an excess of nutrients. Eutrophication is a term used to describe a body of water in which the organic nutrients reduce the level of dissolved oxygen to such a point that plant life is favored over animal life. Algae blooms cause excessive organic material also. When algae die, they become a part of the organic wastes. (Nebel, 1990) Most organic material can be broken down by microorganisms. Microorganic biodegradation can be either aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic oxidation results in the further depletion of dissolved oxygen. When dissolved oxygen in water is decreased by excessive organic matter and ongoing degradation, the process then shifts to an anaerobic process. Anaerobic bacteria actually flourish in the absence of oxygen. Animal life can be permanently suppressed in this environment. (Hill, 1992) When dissolved oxygen decreases, major shifts occur in the kinds of aquatic organisms found in a body of water. The insects that need high levels of dissolved oxygen are replaced by anaerobic organisms. Mayfly nymphs, stonefly nymphs, caddisfly nymphs, and beetle larvae (all need high levels of dissolved oxygen) are replaced by pollution tolerant worms, fly larvae, nuisance algae, and other anaerobic organisms. (Mitchell and Stapp, 1992)
So what is a good level of dissolved oxygen? Under 4 ppm is not good. But what about too much dissolved oxygen? (Hidaka, Shimazu, Kumanda, Takeda and Aramaki, 1991) “A nonlinear relationship was found between oxygen concentration and median lethal concentrations values, with significantly increased toxicity at the middle oxygen concentration. It was concluded that dissolved oxygen concentration was an important environmental factor in the assessment of photo-induced toxicity of anthracene to fish.” (McCloskey and Oris, 1991 p.145)
We have present day examples of the effects of pollution on dissolved oxygen, which then in turn effects the ecosystem. Following are two clear examples of the devastating effects of neglect of our ecosystem.
(1) The Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in North America. Before the 1970s the bay was also the most productive, yielding millions of pounds of fish and shellfish and a home for a variety of waterfowl. Most of the food chains started with the sea grasses. Over half a million acres of this underwater “grass” was present only a few feet beneath the surface. The sea grass provided food, a place for spawning, shelter for young fish, and dissolved oxygen for the fish to breathe. In the early 1970s, the sea grasses started to die. By 1980 the grasses were gone, except in the lower bay. All animals that had depended on the grasses died accordingly. Even worse, the bottom water did not have enough dissolved oxygen and caused large numbers of lobsters, oysters, and fish to be suffocated. The water of the Chesapeake Bay was very murky and cloudy. The cloudiness persisted over extended periods of time. The reduced light was decreasing photosynthesis and the sea grass began to die as a result. Without the photosynthesis of the sea grass, dissolved oxygen was no longer being adequately supplied. In addition, bacterial decomposition was consuming dissolved oxygen, thus making it unavailable to fish and shellfish. Chesapeake Bay has been overcome by the process called eutrophication. This is not unusual. In the past 40 years, many other ponds and small lakes have also suffered this fate. (Nebel, 1990)
(2) The Black Sea. The polluting of the Black Sea is causing the Black
Sea to die. Over 300 rivers dump into the Black Sea a deadly mix of nitrates,
Phosphorous, and oil. A local joke in Varna, Bulgaria, tells suicide cases not to worry about drowning, since the sea’s poisons will kill them first. The worst offenders are the Danube, Dniester, and Dnieper Rivers. Waste from the Danube River has increased at least tenfold over the past decade. Johann Strauss Jr.’s “Blue Danube” would hardly be recognizable to the composer. Its never blue now, instead it’s always a color of pea-green or black. When the sun hits puddles of oil, it forms rainbows on its ripples. The biggest problem is not the poisons but the nutrients – the phosphorous and nitrogen. The entry of more nutrients into the sea means more harmful surface algae to keep sunlight from the seabeds, killing them and halting the production of dissolved oxygen. (Pomfret, 1994)
Other rivers are polluted also, such as the River Borovniscica(Yugoslavia), which is polluted with organic substances and the River Bistra, which is polluted with inorganic substances. Also the death of the Cuyahoga River, which burst into flames on June 22, 1969. (Gordon and Steele, 1993)
Dissolved oxygen levels can vary even within the same stream, river, or body of water. Outside the main current of a stream, dissolved oxygen levels can be low. This point was graphically illustrated by biologist E.P. Pister as he attempted to rescue an endangered species of pupfish. In his hurry to collect more pupfish, he had placed the cages containing previous captures in eddies away from the main current. By the time he noticed his error, a number of these fragile creatures were already dead. (Pister, 1993)
Sometimes it’s not lack of dissolved oxygen that kills the fish. Rather it can be too much dissolved oxygen, as in the case of the American River. Dissolved oxygen levels were considerably higher in the American River than those reported to cause death in hatchery salmonoids due to gas bubble disease. The source of this gas bubble disease and supersaturation in the river was from air entrainment, solar heating, and photosynthesis. The impact of the high dissolved oxygen levels in the hatchery water supplies was decreased with the installation of degassing structures to remove excessive dissolved oxygen. (Colt and Orwicz and Brooks, 1991)
As people try to solve disasters like those cited above, they need to determine the source of the problem before they work on a solution. Sometimes even while people are trying to clean up, there is no statistically discernible pattern of increases in the water’s dissolved oxygen content. Many companies offer test kits to measure water quality. Some tests take a long time to run, but people are always looking for a quicker way to run the tests especially under field conditions where response time is critical. Some companies have come up with a quicker way to run tests, but are they as accurate as we’d like to believe? One type of kit for measuring dissolved oxygen is put out by CHEMetrics. The CHEMets ampoules contain a solution of indigo carmine in reduced (near colorless) form. When you snap the tip the ampoule fills with your water sample and any dissolved oxygen in that sample will cause the reagent to oxidize to a blue color. Then the ampoule is compared with the standard color bars. A noticeable problem is that there is definitely a change in the shade of color from 0-4 ppm, but in the higher ranges it is hard to tell any difference. For example, 5-10 ppm seem to be the same shade of blue, and there is not even a specific color bar for 9 ppm. There is an 8 ppm and then a 10 ppm. If you say that the shade of blue is darker than the 8 ppm color bar but less than the 10 ppm color bar, then you could declare it 9 ppm. There is no way of saying if something is 7.5 ppm because there is no shade of blue halfway between 7 ppm and 8 ppm.
The HACH method takes longer, but it is easier to determine the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. The way you determine the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water is by how many drops of Sodium Thiosulfate Standard Solution you add until the sample changes from yellow to colorless. Each drop equals one ppm of dissolved oxygen.
We need to think about accuracy, but what about safety? The HACH method uses chemicals that are labeled with “Keep out Of Reach of Children.For Laboratory Use Only. Causes Eye Burns. Do Not Ingest. May Cause Skin Irritation.” along with direction what to do if you inhale, ingest, or come into contact with the chemical. The directions indicate the need to be very cautious with the chemical, particularly because it isn’t safe without proper use. By contrast the CHEMets kit has no warnings like this. The obvious hazard is that you would squeeze the glass ampoule too hard and it would break. There are many things to take into consideration when you are selecting a test kit, not just which one is faster. Such as quality, time, safety, expense, accuracy and much more.
Materials
HACH(r) TESTING KIT
-Dissolved Oxygen 1 Reagent Powder Pillows
-Dissolved Oxygen 2 Reagent Powder Pillows
-Dissolved Oxygen 3 Reagent Powder Pillows
-Sodium Thiosulfate, Stabilized, Standard Solution, 0.0109N
-Bottle, Dissolved Oxygen, glass stoppered
-Bottle, square, mixing
-Clippers
-Stopper, for dissolved oxygen bottle
-Tube, measuring 5.83 mL
CHEMets(r) TESTING KIT
-Self filling ampoules for colorometric analysis
-Chart with color bars for comparison to self-filling ampoules
TABLE
-Covered with newspaper and/or paper towels
WATER
-Kankakee River
-Melted snow
-Tap water
-Tap water stirred for one minute
-Roof runoff
-Fish aquarium
EQUIPMENT TO RECORD RESULTS
-Paper
-Pencil
-Clipboard
SAFETY EQUIPMENT
-Rubber gloves
-Goggles
-Rubber aprons
Procedure HACH TESTING KIT1) Fill Dissolved Oxygen bottle (round bottle with glass stopper) with the water to be tested by allowing water to overflow the bottle for 2 or 3 minutes. To avoid trapping air bubbles in the bottle, incline the bottle slightly and insert the stopper with a quick thrust. This will force the air bubbles out. If bubbles become trapped in the bottle in Steps 2 or 4 the sample should be discarded before repeating the test.
2) Use the clippers to open one Dissolved Oxygen 1 Regent Powder Pillow and one Dissolved Oxygen 2 Reagent Powder Pillow. Add the contents of each pillow to the bottle. Stopper the bottle carefully to exclude air bubbles. Grip the bottle and stopper firmly, shake vigorously to mix. A flocculent (floc) precipitate will be formed. If oxygen is present in the sample, the precipitate will be brownish orange in color. A small amount of powdered reagent may remain stuck to the bottom of the bottle. This will not affect the test results.
3) Allow the sample to stand until the flock has settled halfway in the bottle, leaving the upper half of the sample clear. Shake the bottle again. Again let it stand until the upper half of the sample is clear. Note the floc will not settle in samples with high concentrations of chloride, such as sea water. No interference with the test results will occur as long as the sample is allowed to stand for 4 or 5 minutes.
4) Use the clippers to open one Dissolved Oxygen 3 Reagent Powder Pillow.
Remove the stopper from the bottle and add the contents of the pillow. Carefully restopper the bottle and shake to mix. The floc will dissolve and a yellow color will develop if oxygen is present.
5) Fill the plastic measuring tube level full of the sample prepared in Steps 1 through 4. Pour the sample into the square mixing bottle.
6) Add the Sodium Thiosulfate Standard Solution drop by drop to the mixing bottle, swirling to mix after each drop. Hold the dropper vertically above the bottle and count each drop as it is added. Continue to add drops until the sample changes from yellow to colorless.
7) Each drop used to bring about the color change in Step 6 is equal 1 mg/L of dissolved oxygen.
CHEMets(r) TESTING KIT
1) Immerse the snapper into the sample.
2) Place a CHEMet ampoule, tapered end first into the snapper.
3) Press down on the ampoule to snap the tip.
4) Remove the ampoule from the snapper, and invert it several times, allowing the bubble to travel from end to end to mix the contents.
5) Wait 2 minutes for a full color development.
6) Use the color chart (inside box) to determine the dissolved oxygen content by matching the filled CHEMet ampoule with the color bars on the chart. The chart should be illuminated from above by a strong white light. Be sure to place the ampoule on both sides of the color bar before concluding that it gives the best match.
Results
LocationChem HachTemp C°difference
Kankakee River (near our dock)10122.2-2
Kankakee River (near our dock)10113.3-1
Kankakee River (near our dock)9134.4-4
Kankakee River (near our dock)10125.0-2
Roof Runoff 455.6-1
Kankakee River (near our dock)10115.6-1
Tap Water7718.90
Snow (melted)8821.10
Tap Water (stirred for 1 minute)7821.1-1
Fish Aquarium7723.30
Fish Aquarium7823.3-1
Fish Aquarium7823.3-1
Tap Water3123.32
Graphs
Conclusions
My conclusion is that there is a significant difference in dissolved oxygen
(DO) levels as measured by the traditional HACH(r) method or the newly developed CHEMets(r) test kit under typical field conditions? CHEMets(r) test kits are very hard to read, especially in the higher ranges. CHEMets(r) does not compare well to HACH(r) in areas where dissolved oxygen is higher than 8 ppm, and it does not measure above 10 ppm. CHEMets(r) would be fine for temperatures of about 150C or warmer. The HACH(r) test kit is the method of choice for field analysis because it is more reliable at all levels in providing accurate measures of dissolved oxygen. The HACH(r) method requires more caution in use, but actually produces significant differences in measures of dissolved oxygen.
Statistics
Wilcoxson Matched Pairs Signed Rank Test
Data gathered in the course of performing analysis is subject to certain random fluctuations. These fluctuations may vary in size and in many cases make it difficult to decide whether the observed differences are due to real differences in the sample or to simple chance. The discipline of statistics allows one to assess the probability (the odds) that measured differences arise from chance alone. Once one has a feel for the odds that the differences arise from chance, one can decide to reject or conditionally accept a hypothesis based on that data.
The statistical test being used for this study (Wilcoxson – Matched Pairs Signed Ranks) was chosen for its computational ease and power. A nonparametric test was chosen because there was a question about the level of measurement (ordinal or interval) and whether or not the assumptions for a parametric test could be met.
Procedure to apply Wilcoxson – Matched Pairs Signed Ranks test. (see table)
1. Pair all data from each sample according to date.
2. Take the difference between each pair of measurements.
3. Rank the size of each difference paying no heed to sign (drop zero differences – split ranks on ties)
4. Compute the sum of the rank with the less frequent sign (T).
5. Set alpha for 0.05 with a two tailed test.
6. Look up the value for T in an appropriate statistical table. (table G page 254 of Nonparametric Statistics by Sidney Sigel 1956 McGraw Hill)
7. Reject the null hypothesis (Ho) if T is equal to or less than the tabled value.
Chem Hach Temp CºChem – Hach Rank
7723.30
7718.90
8821.10
455.6-13.5
7821.1-13.5
7823.3-13.5
7 8 23.3 -1 3.5
10 11 3.3 -1 3.5
10 11 5.6 -1 3.5
3 1 23.3 2 8
10 12 5.0 -2 8
10 12 2.2 -2 8
9 13 4.4 -4 10
N= 10 (number of non-zero differences)
T= 8 (sum of ranks with less frequent sign) a = 0.05 (significance level)
Ho is rejected.
Literature Cited
APHA (1990). Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. (16 ed.) New York: APHA, Inc.
Avault, J. (1993, Jul/Aug). Take care of those brood cats. Aquaculture, pp.73
Belanger, S. (1991, July). The effect of dissolved oxygen, sediment, and sewage treatment plant discharges upon growth, survival, and density of Asiatic clams. Hydrobiologia, pp. 113-126.
Brown, L. (1994). State of the world. London: W.W. Norton & Company. pp.42.
Colt, J. & Orwicz K. & Brooks, D. (1991, Winter). Gas supersaturation in the American River. California Fish and Game. pp.41-50.
Hikada, Shimazu, Kumanda, Takeda, Aramaki. (1991). Studies on the occurrence of hypoxic water mass in surface mixed layer of inner area of Kagoshima Bay. Memoirs of the Faculty of Fisheries: Kagoshima. pp.59-81.
Have, M. (1991). Selected water-quality characteristics in the upper Mississippi River Basin, Royalton to Hastings, Minnesota. USGS Water-Resources Investigation. pp. 125.
Hill, J. (1992). Chemistry for changing times. (6th ed.) New York: McMillain Publishing Co. pp. 477, 487- 489.
Knopman, D. (1993, Jan/Feb). 20 years of the clean water act. Environment. pp.16.
McCloskey, J. & Oris, J. (1991, Dec.). Effect of water temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration on the photo-induced toxicity of anthracene to juvenile bluegill sunfish. Aquatic Toxicology. pp.145-156.
Nebel, B. (1990). Science: the way the world works. (3rd ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Pomfret, 0.J. (1994, Nov. 25). Rivers deadly to Black Sea. The Daily Journal. pp. 20.
Roskowski, R. & Marshall, B. (1993, Jul/Aug). Gases in water. Aquaculture, pp. 70-76.
Schopf, J. (!993, May). Fossil show diversity of life. Science News pp.276. Stapp, W. & Mitchell, M. (1992). Field manual for water quality. (6th ed.).
Michigan: Thomson – Shore Inc.
Steele, J. (1993, Oct.). The American environmental policy. American Heritage. pp.30.
film and tv
Film & TV
Author
Institution
Introduction
Film and TV or rather the entire media industry has been one of the most crucial or fundamental aspects of the contemporary society. It goes without saying that as much as the media industry is not limited to film and TV, they occupy quite a large proportion of the industry. This has especially been promoted by the growth and development of the internet, which has translated into a tremendous growth in the film and TV industry. As expected, the film and TV industry incorporates varied dynamics especially as pertaining to its influence, its mutual interaction with society and culture, as well as the economics or business nature of the industry. In addition, there exists the issue of the dynamics involving players in the industry. Varied publications have been made on these issues. This paper at examining the contents of four publications within the premises of economics, leaders in the film and TV industry, the aspect of film and TV in society and culture, and the dynamics of media influence.
Film and TV on economics
Hoskins, C, McFadyen, S and Finn, A (2000). Global Television and Film: An Introduction to the Economics of the Business. Oxford: Oxford publishers
This publication mainly dwells on business or economics aspect of the industry and would, especially, come in handy for individuals who have some fundamental knowledge of media economics. It explains how audiovisual products are treated by the market economy and offers opinions on what “what ought to be” from the neoclassical economic standpoint. This book emphasizes on the distinctiveness of cultural products with their analysis being largely founded on their abnormal characteristics. In addition, they argue that the cultural and economic development approach to cultural issues may be reconciled. This book would serve as a concise reference guide of individuals who need to understand the economic imperatives pertaining to the cultural industries. It is worth noting that they explain the reasons as to why the United State is the most crucial audiovisual market in the world. In this regard, the book emphasizes on the role that the stringent copyright rules have played in enhancing the audiovisual market. In addition, the variation in the multiplicity of people’s culture and cultural preferences has played a key or a dominant role in enhancing the strength of the United States audiovisual market.
One of the key lessons in this publication is the fact that media companies produce what consumers want. The authors note that market economies revolve around replacing government diktat with consumer sovereignty. The authors vindicate Hollywood studios that dominate the global film distribution stating that, the financial discipline that the market imposes forces Hollywood creators to customize their films to the moviegoing public’s desires. In addition, the authors note that independent producers have a much better capacity to pursue creative and artistic agendas that are not related to the desires of moviegoers.
Film and TV, society & culture
Kellner, D (1995). Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity and Politics Between the Modern and the Postmodern. New York: Routledge
This key idea in this book mainly revolves around society and culture. It develops analyses and methods pertaining to the modern TV, music film and other varied artifacts to determine their effects and nature. In this book, Kellner argues that the media culture is essentially the prevailing form of culture that socializes all individuals and offers materials for social reproduction, change and identity. Kellner comes up with some lively studies that illuminate the modern culture and offers some methods of critique and analysis. In this regard, he examines some of the most influential or even popular forms of the modern media culture, with a special analysis of African American culture, television news and entertainment, fashion, rap music, youth films, Madonna, Rambo and horror films. In this book, he offers varied approaches to the question on the impact of culture and comes up with different perspectives for cultural studies. The author argues that the society has misunderstood the TV thereby contributing to an entirely distorted view of culture and art in the contemporary society. He states that, people have spread exaggerated claims on how television undermines behavior and human consciousness, in the last quarter of the 20th century. In addition, the television has been relegated to being a scapegoat for every other cultural and social ill. In this regard, the author states that many researchers have presented fundamentally flawed and weak arguments as per the ill effects of television. The effects of television on society and culture would only be understood by seeing the same as an art, as well as measuring its role in culture and society in line with the first principles of liberty and human reason.
Media influence, film and TV
D’Arcy, J, (2004). Media Influences in Young People’s Lives. Journal of the Canadian academy of child and adolescent psychiatry
This publication mainly focuses on how young people are affected by TV and films, or rather the entire media in general. The author acknowledges that the media world has a profound impact on young people’s view of the world around them, as well as themselves. As much as it provides young people with numerous entertainment and learning opportunities, some media messages and images have a connection with health concerns including poor nutrition, obesity, substance abuse, media dependency, risky sexual behavior and unhealthy body image.
This author states that socially-conscious health professionals who are acting in the best interests of their patients have to be aware of the influential, ubiquitous presence of media in the patient’s lives. In addition, it is imperative that they inform and educate the patient’s, as well as their parents as pertaining to the likely health effects of the media and even underline the importance of becoming media-savvy. However, the author takes note of the variations in the reaction of children to violent video games, television shows that have high-risk behaviors or scary movies.
Industry leaders, film and TV, journal
Hoskins, C & McFadyen, S (1991). The U.S. Competitive Advantage in the Global Television Market: Is it Sustainable in the New Broadcasting Environment? Canadian journal of communication
This publication examines the dominance of the United States in the television market, as well as the dynamics that may affect its position. The publication takes note of the fact that there have been no variations since 1973 as far as the supremacy or control of the United States in the Global TV market. This is especially because of varied presumed cultural consequences. In this regard, the authors consider the effects of variations in the broadcasting environment on the dominance of the United States. The variations include the trends to international co-ventures, the introduction of the solid-state microelectronic production technology in the 3rd word and the developed world simultaneously, and the new technologies of distributions which have led to the speedy expansion of the coverage of television signal in 3rd world are somehow connected to the trends pertaining to deregulation in the west. The dominance of the United States in the television market worldwide has been built on comparative advantage, economies of scale and first-mover advantage.
The reader would learn that the United States dominance would be lessened by factors such as audience fragmentation in the U.S market and the convergence of market sizes, both of which lower the United States’ economies of scale. Other factors include variations in operating and demand characteristics, in varied rival markets that enhance their positions as global platforms, as well as the trends towards international coalitions.
Its dominance may, however, be maintained through increased channels outside the United States, global trend towards enhanced demand for escapist of the kind that has always been associated with the United States.
References
Hoskins, C & McFadyen, S (1991). The U.S. Competitive Advantage in the Global Television Market: Is it Sustainable in the New Broadcasting Environment? Canadian journal of communication
D’Arcy, J, (2004). Media Influences in Young People’s Lives. Journal of the Canadian academy of child and adolescent psychiatry
Kellner, D (1995). Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity and Politics Between the Modern and the Postmodern. New York: Routledge
Hoskins, C, McFadyen, S and Finn, A (2000). Global Television and Film: An Introduction to the Economics of the Business. Oxford: Oxford publishers