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Extinction Of Unwanted Behavior Through The Use Differential Reinforcement Of Other Behavior (DRO)
Extinction Of Unwanted Behavior Through The Use Differential Reinforcement Of Other Behavior (DRO)
Introduction
Extinction is used in a combined and separate form, also, as a differential reinforcement of other behavior, which is known as a DRO. This is for the purpose of finding out if there is a reduction of shouting, which is an unwanted behavior, witnessed at a daycare facility where there are young children. Reinforcement through attention is an effective way of ensuring that the problem is solved. The participants showed that through DRO and extinction, the problem of shouting is eliminated. This is regardless of the other methods, which were used in the experiment (Wilder & Atwell & Wine, 2006).
DESCRIPTORS: Shouting, problem behavior, differential reinforcement extinction, day care children, attention, acknowledged, ignored.
Most young children encounter their first interactions when they are with other children and mostly in day care centers. Some children tend to express the problem behavior of shouting, which in turn affects them, as they carry out various activities. During play time, the shouting problem behavior occurs often and this means that it needs to be addressed as well as intervened. It has been proven that analysis of behavior occurs when the strategy of behavior is used. It is meant for the purpose of ensuring that unwanted behavior does not exist (McCord &Thomson & Iwata, 2001). In order to remove the reinforce, which is interfering with the behavior, extinction has to occur. The latter has to be terminated or withdrawn using the most effective manner. Behavior extinction occurs when the results of withdrawal have been witnessed. In order to ensure to that the shouting problem behavior is stopped, reinforcement should take place.
For many decades, interventions of a behavioral nature have been an extremely predominant approach during treatment. Children are the ones, who are subjected to this approach in order to ensure that they adapt and function according to their environment. Assessment of behavior among children has improved significantly due to the refined techniques, which are also advanced. In turn, the children are trained through rehabilitation and also, their development of skills improves drastically. According to Wilder, 2006, the problem behavior should be identified early enough. This ensures that teachers and parents find effective solutions with dealing with this issue. In order for the DRO to become successful, the children should be constantly reminded of the consequences of their actions. The teachers and parents should make sure that their verbal cues are made known to the children. This is effective in reducing shouting among the children (Wilder et al, 2006). It has been found out that young children, who show good behavior by not shouting, should be rewarded through acknowledgment. Other children will follow the good behavior, since they know that they will be rewarded also. The behavior being targeted is shouted and reinforcement in the form of DRO is extremely effective. It ensures that the occurrence of the behavior does not progress further.
It has been found out that in order to reduce shouting among children, they should be ignored. This means that no attention should be given to them unless, they raise their hands. Also, the children will be acknowledged so long as shouting is not done by them, and their hands are raised up. This means that they will receive the attention, which they need. Studies, which have been done on this issue are not many, thus there are no conclusive results that the DRO will work effectively in this situation. The children in the day care facilities are able to provide sufficient information regarding extinction from the evidence it provides. The chosen variable, which is independent, focusing on school children, who are young, has been proven effective in other studies.
The reason for using the DRO extinction method is because other interventions, which are positive, have not been conclusive enough. It is not very clear whether the problem function is due to the different mechanisms, which affect their lives. Attention given to the children is the remedy and this is because of DRO and extinction. In order to fully understand how this problem behavior functions, a thorough analysis has to be done, by following the right procedures. It is vital that the children refrain from activities, which might make them to shout. Avoidance is always a key option in dealing with this problem behavior. Teachers are parents should not overlook the recommendations, which are presented to them (Grow et al, 2008). This is because once children are aware that shouting is not good, they will not continue with this problem behavior. Also, more evaluation needs to be done concerning the effects of using DRO and extinction methods when dealing with the problem of shouting, among young children in day care centers. The purpose for conducting this study is to find out if unwanted behaviors can be gotten rid of using the method of differential reinforcement. The latter should be able to ensure that the problem behavior becomes extinct.
References
Grow, L.et al. (2008). Utility of extinction-induced response variability for the selection of mands. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 41, 15–24.
McCord, B. &Thomson, R. & Iwata, B. (2001). Functional analysis and treatment of self-injury associated with transitions. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34, 195–210.
Wilder, D. & Atwell, J. & Wine, B. (2006). The effects of varying levels of treatment integrity on child compliance during treatment with a three-step prompting procedure. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 369–373.
Wilder, D. et al. (2006). Brief functional analysis and treatment of tantrums associated with transitions in preschool children. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 103–107.
HUMAN NATURE THEORIES
HUMAN NATURE THEORIES
Name
Course
Date
Human Nature Theories
Introduction
The human nature comprises of the core characteristics for example behavior, feelings, and psychology shared by all individuals. Different scholars plus philosophers typically inclined to discuss human life based on significant theories as well as schools of thought from human history. According to some religious scholars, the divine or spiritual natures are the crucial attributes in human nature. For instance, the Judeo-Christian belief presents humans as God’s creation that exhibits free will which gives them both dignity as well as ethical dangers. Other ideas concerning human nature have been discoursed by some historically significant figures including Karl Marx, Rene Descartes, Charles Darwin plus Sigmund Freud.
In explaining the human nature in broad terms, the discussions usually commence with Aristotle and Plato in conventional Greece. Plato believed that humans were rational, social animals, and thus he connected the individual’s nature with their souls rather than their bodies. In his belief, Aristotle argued that both body and soul added to the individual’s human identity. Therefore the theories explaining human nature are not commonly exclusive, and nonetheless, they have been established upon each other and reformed over time. There exist different theories concerning human nature, and it is good to note that, some elements of these theories are agreeable while others are disagreeable.
Therefore this paper presents discusses and analyzes in in-depth the various methods that explain human nature while presenting some of their strengths and weakness in their implementation.
Darwinian Theory
This theory exists as an experiment to the social disciplines as well as the humanities and also to the doctrine and more precisely to a Christian indulgent of the human nature. According to Darwin evolution, the way in which we observe the world as well as ourselves has been transformed significantly. Hence for the individuals who have incorporated Darwinism, human being beside any other living creature are the final products of a natural process. For them, there exists no purpose, no creator and there is just survival for the fittest, and hence humanity is typically a cosmic mishap. From Darwinism viewpoint, human beings together with other living things are the final consequence of a blind and untraced physical procedure. That is to say that we are merely animals. Moreover, the practice of natural selection has been summoned to elucidate like every feature of human conduct and culture. Majority of these stories are just unsubstantiated, but they seem to have captured the imagination of many individuals for example from religion to altruism, there is an evolutionary story for everything concerning human nature.
Critical discussion
In the Christianity perception and thinking, the above assertion is an onslaught. According to my insights and experience, I am always convinced that the whole concept of evolution was false and this is not as a result of not knowing anything about it. Relatively, I am confident of the existence of God as well as the reliability of the Bible mainly the New Testament. I believe to have adequate justification for the belief of the creation of the earth and the human being and in the work of Jesus Christ. Christianity has been dramatically challenged by a range of inferences founded on Darwin’s writings for example in his writings he challenged the acknowledged philosophies concerning God’s part in creating the world broadly, and this afterward led to some confrontations between Christianity and science.
Confucianism Theory
Confucius was enthusiastic about human potential, and thus he wanted individuals to be thinkers or intelligent individuals who instantiate the golly of the heavens inside them and therefore this is accomplished by being kind. Confucius was not vibrant regarding the issue of why so few individuals become wise, compassionate sages and however, he suggested it might be that individuals freely choose not to be good. Moreover, he thought that the environment plays a significant part in shaping people.
Confucius is well known for emphasizing that human nature is inherently good. He further elaborates that human beings are born with the capability for distinguishing between what is wrong and right. According to Confucius, by character, human beings are born with relatively the same abilities and needs.
Critical Discussion
There are some points which are agreeable in the Confucianism theory, for example, it teaches on the obedience to superiors, and this is worthy if the heads of family or state are good. If they are not the entire structure is destabilized. Therefore Confucius accentuated the proper characters of leaders. I also agree with Confucius theory as it embraces individuals to be part of nature and thus act in accord with the rules and laws of nature.
One weakness elaborated in this theory is that ordinary individuals plus wisdom seem to be excluded from the Confucian doctrine of human nature
Freud’s Theory
Freud is regarded as a noteworthy trailblazer of the contemporary philosophy established a deterministic outlook on human nature based on instinct as well as personality. His theory is distinct from other approaches as he considers us not as humans, but rather animals who possess innate biological drives: a multifaceted species with some primeval urges. These urges according to him are only reserved under control by the pressures amid the subjugation of society. Freud narrowed the word “instinct” which can relate to a wide-ranging range of impulses, into four main drives which include: self-preservation, the need for love, hostility as well as the urge to achieve pleasure and evade some pain.
Nevertheless, these impulses in themselves are neither bad nor good. The individuals typically classify them plus their expressions in that manner, rendering to their relation to the necessities and demands of the humanoid community. The civilized society which usually demands good conduct and thus seems to not distress itself concerning the instinctual base of this conduct has consequently won over to obey a large number of individuals who are not in this conduct, following their natures.
Critical Discussion
I tend to disagree with some parts of this theory since the society has allowed itself to be deceived into narrowing the ethical standard to the utmost possible degree, and as a result, has forced its members into yet another great hostility from their instinctive dispositions. In the realm of sexuality, where such subdual is most hard to conduct, the result is evident in the responsive occurrences of neurotic disorders. In the Freud’s world, the individuals who are most affected by the principles of his theory are unstable individuals. However, as a result, some positive elements are agreeable which thrived as a result of the Freud concept. Freud established his strategy for treatment which is referred to as psychoanalysis. This type of therapy has been in use for several years with many adaptations provided to it. On the positive side, psychoanalysis presents a client with the structure as well as time to resolve neurotic issues. The negative side of it is that there is always some expressed concern over the cost as the psychoanalysis process is typically expensive.
Marx’s Theory
In his discussion of human life, Marx typically contends that our nature is resolute by the type of the economic system. According to him, there is a precise manner in which individuals tend to behave because they live in a capitalist society as contrasting to a communist society or a medieval one. Marx further elaborated that if individual vicissitudes the nature of the economic system for instance from a capitalist towards a communist system, he or she changes the sociological climate in which the individuals are brought up, and subsequently, human nature also changes. The idea that human life is socially relatively than naturally produced, and that therefore it is vigorous and ever-changing, is regarded to be crucial to Marx’s concept of history plus his ideas about how the society progresses.
Critical Discussion
Agreeing with Marx’s theory of history concerning human nature requires an individual to hold the view that humanoid nature is quite malleable. Else it would be difficult for a humanoid character to progress from the economic method because the economic system changes rapidly. Therefore the thing that is already fixed cannot be definite by that which changes. This is often overlooked, and however, this contradiction within Marx’s body of work offers an excellent prospect to think critically about our notions of human nature.
Hinduism Theory
This theory is intricate as it implicates the notion of the self or soul. According to this notion, it is noted that the Atman is beyond sound and form and hence it is eternal, unchangeable as well as without beginning or the end; certainly beyond reasoning. Thus this refers to the belief by Hindus there exists a deeper self which lies within individuals. Moreover, it hides behind the individuals experienced self which is denoted as Atman. What survives the individual’s death and hence continues to be reborn again is known as Atman. According to the theory, this kind of self is continuously reincarnated into diverse bodies till it escapes the helm of rebirth. Through prayer, ascetic practices, as well as meditation, this type of self, can be known, precisely because it is fundamentally similar in the entire human beings. Due to its association with the levels of mindfulness, samsara among others, the notion behind atman inclines to be more intricate. I tend to agree with this point since ignorance is regarded as the central problem of human reality concerning the nature of absolute reality.
Another point to note is that this concept believes in Karma which is an ethical law of cause plus consequence. It thus means that the individuals’ actions are not free, and nonetheless, they are determined by their previous needs besides their actions. This point is agreeable since the human being tends to be in a psychosomatic suppression to past activities and the desires that instigated them. An excellent example of cause and effect is that for instance after excessive eating of junk food, smoking and excessive consumption of alcohol, there exists a binding nature which is characterized with health problems among this group of individuals.
Critical Discussion
Vedanta philosophy which is encompassed in the Hinduism concept is highly textual which means that it is reliant on ancient scriptures. The current philosophers incline to disagree with this concept as they reject it as a source of truth. It creates some mystical claims, and this is similarly problematic in contemporary western philosophy or practical morality. Furthermore, Vedanta is an exclusive philosophy, which usually excludes the uneducated.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is evident that all the above theories discusses and analyzes a lot concerning human nature, although in different perspectives. However in these theories there exist some notions in them some which are agreeable while others are disagreeable. I tend to agree on a lot on Freud’s theory on human nature as his argument seems to be distinct from the other approaches in diverse ways. I disagree mostly on a Darwinian theory concerning human nature due to the various reasons as described above.
Bibliography
Adler, Alfred. Understanding Human Nature (Psychology Revivals). Routledge, 2013.
Cooley, Charles Horton. Human nature and the social order. Routledge, 2017.
Fitzsimmons, Margaret. “The matter of nature.” In Theory and Methods, pp. 109-124. Routledge, 2017.
Freud, Sigmund. Civilization and its discontents. Broadview Press, 2015.
Hume, David. “An enquiry concerning human understanding.” In Seven Masterpieces of Philosophy, pp. 191-284. Routledge, 2016.
Loptson, Peter. Theories of human nature. Broadview Press, 2006.
External Recruitment, Selection, and Staffing
External Recruitment, Selection, and Staffing
Name
Institution
External Recruitment, Selection, and Staffing
Companies require employees that are extensively crucial for their full functionality and successful deliverance of services or products. Thus, it is advisable for a company to have a human resource management sector. The central task of this division is to come up with a strategy to recruit company employees. Upon inception of a company, various job openings keep emerging, and there is always a need to fill these positions. It is the human resource department to decide on the best candidate to take up the job vacancies. At this point, they have two main choices, either to recruit employees within the company or source them from outside by advertising the positions. The former of the two alternatives is known as internal recruitment, selection or staffing while the latter choice is otherwise called outsourcing (Gamage & Pang, 2003).
Outsourcing occurred consistently in the Silicon Valley during the early 1970s. Changes within the Silicon Valley in California were growing rapidly, and the need for more workers was on a growing trend. Work within this high-tech region was becoming cumbersome, and many companies saw it best to seek laborers from other companies. Outsourcing is an act of recruiting workers sourced from outside the employing organization. During the 1970s, companies had trouble in attaining the much-needed employees with adept skills. Such people were expensive to hire. At this point, companies decided to employ people with the highly needed skills. Thus, they filtered out all the potential workers and picked people with desired skills, and consequently, turned to external recruitment. They could not rely on their employees since they were working in other sections. External recruitment began by companies purchasing potential workers from vendors. These vendors had an eye for potential candidates, and they took them based on their credentials. Subsequently, they advertised them to various companies until they were employed on a commission basis (Pynes, 2013).
Outsourcing has undergone tremendous changes since it begun. One of the leading changes includes the method used to carry out the processes. Outsourcing companies employ several methods to recruit skilled workers. Advertisement is one of the methods implemented in the recruitment, staffing and selection of potential employees. As days go by, companies are becoming competitive in business and other areas. Such aggressive competition is spreading even to recruitment sections of companies where each one of them wants the best of the available employees. Advertisement mostly involves an external company advertising various job openings within other organizations. Furthermore, the external company is actively involved in meeting up with potential candidates and assessing their qualifications (Schawbel, 2012).
Employment agencies are yet other means of carrying out external recruitment, selection and staffing. The agencies work on behalf of the principal companies that need new employees. They undertake the initial step of looking for employees and catering for interviews in search of the best candidates for the job. They do this at a commission, which the employing company pays up once they get candidates to fill the job positions. At times, these agencies are delegated with the ultimate duty of looking at the needs of the recruited employees. For example, they take care of the employee’s benefits and remunerations. Such cases regularly take place in companies that have outsourced their human resource department (Schermerhorn, 2011).
Companies also prefer entering into business with labor contractors. This is a common occurrence where companies have temporary works. Consequently, they prefer engaging with employees that can work for them within a limited time, otherwise known as a contract. This is beneficial since the employing company cuts down on the extra cost of employing permanent workers, and the work is only short-lived.
Several advantages follow a company once it carries out external recruitment. Such advantages include acquiring new talent that was missing within its workforce. Additionally, new ideas are brought into the company from the outside world. This provides it with the opportunity to use these resources for the ultimate benefit of the company. Growth of companies often involves the requirement of new skills, which are mostly missing within the organizations. It is thus essential for companies to allow room for recruiting workers externally to attain such skills.
Companies within a particular industrial group occasionally require an exposure to various ideologies. Upon exposure to such ideas, the company can overcome competition from similar organizations. Recruiting externally is a vivid channel where companies can utilize to get cross-industry insights. Most of the time, potential candidates are experienced people who have significant work experience from previous jobs. Once they get into a company, they bring knowledge and skills to the new organization. Thus, the new company is exposed to new ideas they can use to improve the productivity of the organization (Schawbel, 2012).
Hiring workers via external recruitment proves to be extensively beneficial since the candidates already have experience. This not only provides the company with excellent workers but also helps save money. Once a company hires new employees, it spends both time and money in training them so that they may be up to speed with the organization’s work. However, once the company outsources its employees, they do not need training. Otherwise, they would only take the new employees through orientation to familiarize them with the environment. In turn, they end up spending less time and money in making the new employees comfortable and familiar with the daily affairs of the company (Schermerhorn, 2011).
On the other hand, external recruitment has several demerits that the company faces whilst carrying out the process. One of the leading disadvantages of external recruitment is spending more cash to cater for all the extra work that the recruiters undertake. Culture stigma is yet another risk that external recruitment can expose employees to once they join the new company. Once people move from one company to another, they are bound to experience a cultural change. Most likely, culture within the new company is different from their previous places of work. Hence, acclimatizing to the new norm within their places of work may be challenging. Others even face stigmatization from fellow workers just because their cultures differ in one or several ways. Such cases also have possible detrimental effects on workers experiencing stigma. For example, the worker may be demoralized to work and have a negative attitude towards work. In turn, the company also suffers since the worker’s productivity is low and so is the organization’s (Pynes, 2013).
One of the common mistakes that recruiters make while undertaking external recruitment is lack of advertising new job vacancies to existing employees. Occasions occur where a company misses noticing that the best person for the job is already working within the company. Failure to elaborate the interview process in details to the interviewees is yet another common mistake that recruiters make in their job. Interviewees often fail because of lack of detailed information regarding the whole process. Moreover, recruiters fail to describe the job in details to the candidates. In turn, the candidates end up turning down opportunities since they feel that the job does not meet their satisfaction. On the other hand, some candidates take up jobs that do not fall within their expectations since they did not get adequate initial job description.
The recruitment process requires regulations and laws to ensure its efficiency. The process being an equal opportunity to all candidates forms one of the most crucial laws that guide it. Cases have occurred where people in the recruitment team encourage nepotism and discrimination. Consequently, the process ends up being unfair, which is wrong. People tend to discriminate others by age, sex or ethnicity, but such laws are extensively helpful in avoiding the occurrence of such behavior during recruitment (Schawbel, 2012).
The selection procedure following a recruitment process involves placing the right skills within the correct job description. It is carried out in several steps, which include preliminary interviews as the initial stage. At this stage, the company gets rid of applicants that do not meet the minimum standards required of each employee. Filling application blanks is the second stage that follows preliminary interviews. It involves candidates writing personal information that is necessary to the company. The next step involves taking tests such as aptitude, reasoning, and personality exams, which the company uses to comprehend the candidates’ potential. Employment interview is the next stage that potential candidates undergo during the selection process. At this point, candidates face a panel of interviewers who check whether they are fit for the job or not. This is a crucial stage for determining the right candidate to join the company (Gamage, and Pang, 2003).
During the selection process, various issues are bound to occur to both the interviewers and interviewees. Interviewers may miss asking the correct questions required to know the fitness of the candidate to fill the vacancy. On the contrary, interviewees may get emotional hindrances that may prevent them from focusing on the questions. Consequently, the company ends up losing a potential candidate. Mistakes may also happen, and the interviewer asks wrong and irrelevant questions. Such an error may make the company employ unqualified people or lose qualified candidates. Nondiscriminatory laws also act as a guide to the selection process in order to avoid irregularities such as bias of interviewers to some candidates. The law also requires candidates to provide valid information and original documents. This is to prevent candidates from lying about their qualifications, and the company from employing people with false information.
Orientation is the initial step carried out during the staffing process. During this stage, the candidates who have undergone the recruitment and selection processes successfully are introduced to their working environment. They familiarize with the working place to ensure that the company’s productivity is maintained at a high level. Training and development is the next step involved in the staffing process. At this point, the workers are equipped with the right knowledge and skills to indulge with their work in the company. The next stage is the remuneration process, which involves grading the performance of each candidate. The management can make adjustments that help candidates improve their performance according to the remuneration process. The staffing program may face common mistakes from the management. Such mistakes include using wrong remuneration factors that may give false results about the candidates. However, selection laws and regulations help avoid the occurrence of such mistakes and discrimination (Kanan, n.d.).
References
Gamage, D. T. & Pang, S. N., (2003). Leadership and management in education. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press.
Kanan S. (n.d.). Internal versus external recruitment – which is best? Retrieved on 11 August 2013 from http://www.myfirstsalesjob.com.au/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=KPc3VDu%2BhZ0%3D&tabid=705&mid=2736
Pynes, E. J. (2013). Human resources management for public and nonprofit organizations. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Schawbel, D. (2012). The power within: Why internal recruiting & hiring are on the rise. Time Business and Money. Retrieved on 11 August 2013 from http://business.time.com/2012/08/15/the-power-within-why-internal-recruiting-hiring-are-on-the-rise/
Schermerhorn, R. J. (2010). Management. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Schermerhorn, R. J. (2011). Introduction to management. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.