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Explanation And Types Of Communities
Explanation And Types Of Communities
A community is a word that has been defined in many various ways. According to the political theory, community been simply defined as a “commonwealth”. And as we know, Commonwealth is an entity or state that is governed by laws and the rule of the people. Therefore, a government can also be referred as a community. The second definition, which is more/less the same as the first one, community is a group with common interests. And it is because of these centralized interests that they stay in the same geographical area. Farmers for instance, will come together to share their main interest which is farming within an area.
Thirdly, community can be referred to as a group with common policy. This is the first definition to do away with the idea geographic location. Therefore, a community is a group of people who are sharing same policies regardless of the location. An example is multinational group of companies. Community, according to the fourth definition, is group of people with same professional interests regardless of their geographical location. Although it might sound similar to the third definition, it mainly focuses on professionals. So as to maintain such kind of the community, commitment among the members of a profession is the major factor to call for. A group of people with a common heritage or ancestry can also be considered as a community. An example is the African American community that is composed of millions of people. In this definition, the most important aspect is identity, not geographical area.
Although this last definition might sound more technical, it is broader and covers a lot of aspects. It defines community as a group sharing a common social structure. It generally refers to stable and expected relations between people within a society regardless of their location.
There are three ways of looking at the community, or the way they interact. These ways can also help us define a community in a much better way.
The first type of community is the neighbourhood. “Community is geographically bound and is made up of a combination of both long term residents and transient individuals”. A neighbourhood may consist of people who don’t know one another but are sharing a physical location. Neighbourhood may yield a healthy or unhealthy interaction depending on the nature or direction it has taken.
In the second type, community is group of people who has come together for formal reasons, either sharing a profession, learning purposes, a set of goals or interests. It therefore moves away from the idea of describing a community as a geographical location and tries to bring a picture of community as a voluntary association of people sharing goals or value. Therefore, this has helped to a great extent promote integration. Here, you become a member of community out of desire and commitment not from sharing a common geographical area or even ethnic or racial background.
In the third type, community is group of people of common identity. It can be large or small, intimate or anonymous, but the key factor is to recognise yourself and share interests with the members. The common types of identity include ethnicity, racial groups, age, subculture and others. However, minority status is central to this.
There are a number of basic sociological concepts that are essential building blocks in understanding of what community is. These include; group, which explains that members think of themselves belonging together and therefore interact freely with one another. This can also be related to the definition of man as a social creature which has to relate. The second concept is aggregate, where by individuals are temporarily together in a physical location. Category is the third concept which is basically a group of people sharing similar physical or social traits. Examples are people of the same age bracket, i.e. 18-24,the disabled group of wealthy people and the old people.
In terms of ideas and background terms, community can be explained in two various ways, the primary group and the secondary group. In primary group, community is groups with intimate connections and relations, cooperation, regular face to face contact that are central to the development of and growth of and individual. The secondary group majorly consists of larger and more formal groups that are joined for a common interest that can join for various interests and goals.
The groups towards which we feel loyalty, mostly the friends, and peer are referred to as in groups. In the other hand, out groups are those towards which we feel no curiosity, sometimes antagonism. In most cases, the out groups are strangers. The attribute of antagonism is natural in the human population although it is negative. Reference groups are the groups that we mostly use to evaluate ourselves on some issues. They are mostly the elderly. Within groups, there are connections of people which can either be close or weak depending on the tie.
In the voluntary community is composed of members who are out of good will found one another and created a community. For instance, in professionalism, members find each other in the course of job and then they form a community on the basis of job. On the other hand, there are involuntary communities. Here, the members are part of the community without a conscious choice. A typical example of involuntary community is neighbourhood, no one has a choice on the kind of neighbourhood he wants to grow in.
Both voluntary and involuntary communities inter relate in normal human development. For example, in the early stages one has to go through involuntary community, the type of neighbourhood is not their choice. Then later on, may be in the profession, they will have to interact with the voluntary community.
There are also a number of countervailing factor such as norm of involvement where people use distancing as a way of defending themselves. There is also diffusion of responsibility, where the assumption that nothing outside ourselves is a responsibility and therefore should not concern us.
There are a lot of theorise that has explained community in different perspectives.Emile Durkheim has tried to use mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity approaches to explain what a community is. In mechanical solidarity, which is traditionally based, states that traditional people shared their chores equally hence this strengthen the community bond. In contrary, the organic solidarity states that in modern society we have our own roles and function. Alignments in this case are as a result of depending on each other.
The second theory is Robert parks theory. After going out to the poor neighbourhoods during his studies, Robert concluded that community is a social structure that is composed of members with shared morality and world views.
Victor turner, an anthropologist, describes a community as where people interact at either communal or visceral level unknowingly.
In conclusion, the community can be described in many ways depending to the context and composition. It is a very important to note that community is an important in individuals development. Although it may come with some challenges, community is important in the integration more so the number two type where community is a collection of people of the same profession, not race or ethnic background. Therefore, community is very important in our life long development.
Dr. Langran and Dr. Heller
Judith Tunney
Dr. Langran and Dr. Heller
SYN330
December 6th 2018
Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being of a population and not merely the absence of a disease or infirmity (Kühn & Rieger, 2017). Health, therefore, plays a significant role in the as it entails the well-being of the general population in the society apart from focusing on a personal perspective. Being free from a disease does not imply that a person is healthy and the same case applies to the other components of a healthy individual that include lack of disability which is physical as well as the mental wellness of a person and the general population as well. Global health on the other side refers to the health of a population in the global context, that is, around the world. Global health can be defined as an area of research and practice that sets up priorities in the improvement of health as well as the achievement of global equity in health for all the populations around the globe.
Global health emphasizes issues that transcend the national borders and therefore have political and economic impacts on the globe if not addressed (DeLaet & DeLaet, 2015). The primary aim of global health is about the improvement of the health of a people worldwide, reducing the disparities as well as protecting the people against global threats that do not recognize national borders. Such threats include terrorism that may take various forms such as bioterrorism that leaves a large number of people either disabled or dead and therefore being a global health concern. Global health is measured as the function of various global diseases and conditions along with their prevalence and the threats to decreasing the life expectancy of the population in the globe. Multiple agencies are mandated to oversee the issues of global health, and these include international agencies such as the world health organization, UNICEF as well as the world food program. Besides, the united nations also play a significant role in addressing the issues concerning global health as well as the underlying socioeconomic determinants as stipulated under the millennium development goals as well as the sustainable development goals.
Global health is, therefore, a concern for all the countries in the globe, and thus measures have to be put in place so that the world is able to achieve their primary aim of global health that involves the achievement of improved health of a population around the globe. For this to be possible, there have to be necessary skills that need to be imparted to the parties responsible for dealing with the global health issues. Skills are acquired through training, and therefore it is necessary for people to be trained so that they are ready to fight against global health problems. The problems may have a tremendous impact in the reduction of the life expectancy of a population in all the aspects of health that include physical to minimize disability, emotional and spiritual as well as social well-being to ensure that communities live in harmony.
Communication skills both verbal and written are essential skills in solving the global health problems (O’Toole, 2016). Communication is essential in various ways as it helps in coordinating all the parties involved in dealing with global health issues as well as sourcing for information from the people affected. Without proper communication channels, it will be difficult for a team that is entrusted with the mandate of carrying research or surveillance in that they are not able to communicate with one another. Language barriers, therefore, may play a significant role in hindering solution finding in a problem. Besides, writing is another important component of the communication skills that are involved in noting down findings of the research as mere verbal communication does not entirely solve the communication of ideas from one region to another. The reason is that a lot of writing is needed in recording various sheets especially in the data collections points where a person must be able to read and write. Literacy, therefore, is the crucial point in finding a solution in reducing the global health impact.
Strong work ethics is another skill that individuals are supposed to have in the attempt to understanding and to solve global health issues (Crane & Matten, 2016). Ethics refers to the code of conduct that a person or an employee is expected to have when working for an organization. Being an ethical person means that one is able to follow the rules and regulations that are set by the organization and therefore the achievement of a goal is made easy as everyone is geared to its success. Abiding by the rules such as those of the world health organization makes it easy for the organization to carry on with its activities as one is expected to work within the framework of the organization. There are various factors of work ethics that include prioritizing, goal-oriented, being available and reliable when expected to offer your services, conscientiousness, embracing positivism as well as creating a rewarding system that aims at encouraging people to work best in achieving the goals of improving the health of a population.
Teamwork can as well be used to solve global health problems (Tomizawa et el. 2017). People need to work as a team especially if they have a common objective, to this case the common goal is to improve the health of a population. Therefore the relevant parties and stakeholders need to work together as one to make sure that they fulfill their goal. Failure to work as a team means that there are divided loyalties within the parties involved in solving the problem and this might prove the achievement of global health to be difficult. Therefore, to understand and address the issues of a globe, teamwork skills are essential as work done together is simplified due to specialization rather than when there is no unity.
Problem-solving skills are also an essential factor in understanding as well as in solving global health problems (Kammen & Hassenzahl, 2018). One has to understand an issue to make a valid decision concerning a global health problem. To come up with the best solution, a person must possess the problem-solving skills that enable them to make a more suitable decision that is beneficial for all with minimum risks in the health sector. Moreover, flexibility is needed in solving the global health issues in that; one has to be flexible in decision making as well as adopting various strategies that may be deemed crucial solving the issue at hand depending on what is presented. Flexibility skills, therefore, may work hand in hand with the problem-solving skills as they make the person not only to make relevant decisions but as well adopt the most suitable solution for the problem.
The stakeholders in the global health field advocate for an interdisciplinary approach to solving global health issues (Nelson & Staggers, 2016). Health is a worldwide concern that affects every person in the globe, and therefore every person needs to be informed about issues regarding health both at personal level and international level. An interdisciplinary approach is achieved in schools whereby students are taught various subjects but in these subjects, there are topics related to health, and this makes it possible for almost all the student able to acquire the essential knowledge regarding health problems affecting the globe. In case a person missed a session in one subject, there is a possibility that they will learn it either at an advanced level or in a different discipline within the curriculum.
An interdisciplinary approach, therefore, aims at educating the students about the health of a population by using the curriculum in various nations using the same contents to be taught all over the world. The main reason is that there are no variations in the information provided as the issues presented are the same no matter the subject. Apart from the curriculum, various disciplines in the field of health are recommended by the public health to work as one, for example, the biological sciences, nursing sciences and the field of medicine also work in collaboration. And this is to ensure that the common goal of improving the health of a population across the globe is achieved through activities such as first aid and data analysis.
In schools, various subjects are offered and have insights into global health as they are aimed at educating the students about the health issues of a population. Biology is my major and has various health issues presented in it. Biology offers insight into global health as many health issues are have been discussed and a link to most of the diseases established to the biological makeup of an individual (Hanson & Gluckman, 2015). Some of the links include the enzymes, hormones, insulin for the regulation of blood sugar as well as the inflammatory modulators that are best explained in the field of biology. There are various research methodologies that are as well explained in the field of biology with some of them including questionnaires where raw data is obtained regarding to the global health problems such as HIV/AIDS, analyzed and consequently programs are developed with also monitoring and evaluation being a key component to establishing the progress made in the aim to improve the global health.
Various researches have been conducted with the aim of identifying the global health issues and this results to various case studies to which are aimed to bringing an insight of what health conditions are like, presenting the symptoms for the students to distinguish. The case study involves type I diabetes that is more prevalent in children (Atkinson et al. 2014). Two young girls aged five and a cousin aged seven years were found in a village in California at a critical condition. They were rushed to a nearby hospital as they had severe signs of thirst, fatigue, hunger, sweating, and nausea. Upon diagnosis, the two girls were found to be diabetic, and they were to receive emergency treatment. Diabetes is a genetic condition that has the probability of attacking children of related families. From the case study, the two girls are close relatives, and this indicates that some of their parents have diabetes also. With diabetes having no borders, it has attacked a large population in the world and therefore becoming a global health issue as well as a condition of public health importance. Diabetes is a global health issue that is studied in both biology and the medical sciences. Many children are affected by the type I diabetes that is due to insulin deficiency. Insulin regulation is studied in biology for the purpose of providing awareness on diabetes as well as other nutrition conditions.
Health issues are on the rise across the globe such as diabetes, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis as well as malaria that calls for a collaboration between the relevant parties and stakeholders such as the WHO to work hard in achieving the health of its people. A condition is regarded as a global health issue if it transcends the boundaries of a country extending to three or more and therefore having a massive impact on the health of the population involved. An interdisciplinary approach is relevant in solving global health issues whereby disciplines such as biology, medicine, and physical sciences are advised to work together and help in achieving the common goal. Skills such as problem-solving, decision making and teamwork are also essential in solving global health issues.
References
Atkinson, M. A., Eisenbarth, G. S., & Michels, A. W. (2014). Type 1 diabetes. The Lancet, 383(9911), 69-82.
Crane, A., & Matten, D. (2016). Business ethics: Managing corporate citizenship and sustainability in the age of globalization. Oxford University Press.
DeLaet, D. L., & DeLaet, D. E. (2015). Global health in the 21st century: the globalization of disease and wellness. Routledge.
Hanson, M. A., & Gluckman, P. D. (2015). Developmental origins of health and disease–global public health implications. Best practice & research Clinical obstetrics & gynaecology, 29(1), 24-31.
Kammen, D. M., & Hassenzahl, D. M. (2018). Should we risk it?: Exploring environmental, health, and technological problem solving. Princeton University Press.
Kühn, S., & Rieger, U. M. (2017). Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity. Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases, 13(5), 887.
Nelson, R., & Staggers, N. (2016). Health Informatics-E-Book: An Interprofessional Approach. Elsevier Health Sciences.
O’Toole, G. (2016). Communication-eBook: Core Interpersonal Skills for Health Professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Tomizawa, R., Shigeta, M., & Reeves, S. (2017). Framework development for the assessment of interprofessional teamwork in mental health settings. Journal of interprofessional care, 31(1), 43-50.
Explaining the Decline of Violent Crime in China Since 2001
Explaining the Decline of Violent Crime in China Since 2001
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Introduction
Information on crime is mostly based on the number of arrest that are approved in each China’s provence.Therefore, indicators in 2011 showed a decline in the crime rate meaning that the number of arrests recorded in most province had gone down. The above perception can contribute to the explanation of a crime decline in china though it is not the whole issue.
China lies in Asia and this continent has shown great changes in crime rate where it is becoming a peaceful place in terms of armed violence. According to history Asia was one of the dangerous places on the earth in the case of violence and death risks, for example during the Chinese civil war.
In order to be able to explain the case of chine crime decline it is important to address the issue from a social origin perspective. Poverty and inequality are structural conditions that are perceived to promote crime. However, Asia is a comparative egalitarian district of the world, although there case of inequality increase. In this regard study shows that society structural variables such as poverty, residential stability among others and society procedures variables such as social ties and collective efficacy have great impact on individual view on crime (Liu, 2005).
Crime deviance can also be used to explain crime and deviance. According to scholars social ties, as well as, resources are important although they are not enough to help in the crime control process. According to study conducted in Tianjin China revealed that collective efficacy once rooted in social ties that are weak enough can aid in the reduction of neighborhood crime rate.
Preceding China’s economy reform urban and rural residents had no freedom to relocate. However, since the economy reform these rules have been loosened. Therefore, according to china’s scholars, this social residential stability has a negative association with lack of proper interaction .For reasons like this negative relationship is poise to residential stability and neighborhood crime.
According to a great number of scholars who are in line with the tradition social disorganization
Strongly accepts that informal social control aspect is an intervening procedure in the neighborhood making it a significant crime predictor (Bellair, 1997). Another thing to note is that due to the fact that social ties raise the residential ability to socialize, monitor, and keep track of strangers within the local community and union in solving social local problems, they are able to raise informal social control and decrease crime
Literature review
There is a large pool of diverse disciplines of literature that has been published. This literature is based in criminology, as well as economics. In this regard a number of theories are there in this area which is based on diversified perspectives. These theories mostly link crime to economic growth. According to Durkheim, social norms and values breakdown can affect the rate of crime that is the crime rate may go up or decline. There are several theories that tries to explain this phenomena .Some of these theories include classical, positivist, individual trait among others.
Classical and positivist theory
According to Beccaria, the researcher of this theory states that crime occurs when the cost outweighs the benefits. That is when people go out for self interest in absence for effective punishment. These theorists believe strongly on the free will concept in the explanation of crime. This implies that if the benefits of being a criminal are far much great compared to the retribution then the criminal behaviors will seem to be more likely (Sampson, Raudenbush, & Earls, 1997). This theory has a likelihood of predicting that cases of extreme punishment have an ability to deter people from crime. On the contrary excessive punishment could be counter productive in one way or the other and would trigger the urge for criminals to commit even serious offences.
The positivist theories have face a lot of critics from the fact that they have no been able to discover causes of crime and also to come up with effective strategies for crime control. They discount the free will role and takes in account genetic factors learning, personality as well as moral development. In addition, the sociological aspect is also put into account.
Radical Criminology
This theory was proposed for the first time in 1973 by Taylor. This theorist based his views on Marxist position. In his views he states that there are no natural acts that are immoral or criminal. In this regard the implication in this is that crimes definitions are determined socially in reflection to the social values. Therefore, crime is seen as socially determined and that the criminal laws suit the powerful and wealthy people in the society (Sampson, Morenoff, & Earls, 1999). Thus people who do not have money involves in crime with an aim of enjoying the luxuries of wealth. In addition, the wealthy commits crime with an aim of increasing their wealth. However, the legal system is always in favor of the wealthy they are likely to be get arrested and punished. Therefore, if wealth was redistributed the cases of crime would be the individual result of psychopathology.
These theories try to show that the case of crime is likely to go down or up as a result of economic factors. When there many marginalized people in the society the crime rates are likely to go up. There has been a record of stable economic growth in China; this might have resulted to what led to decline in crime rate in the year 2011.
Research methodology
Researchers in this case have adapted several models, the most common model are the qualitative and quantitative research models. To be used in this study will comprise of the following. The data to be collected in this research might be borrowed from the 20th century therefore use of quantitative pardigrim is important. On the other hand qualitative research method is also important as it acts as an alternative for the other method.
Quantitative research –This research method is appropriate in this study because it relies on research that relies mainly on the quantitative data collection this pardigrim will follow all the quantitative research requirements. This method will facilitate in the use of numerical analysis. This method helps the researcher to know what he or she is expecting from the research aspects. The main objective is to come up with a mathematical model, hypothesis, and theories that pertains to a certain phenomena, for example in this case crime decline in China.
Qualitative research- This method depends on qualitative data. In addition the method will help the researcher to collected people’s perception on the issues of crime in china. Therefore the humans form the primary data collection instrument. People’s values will have impact on this research and needs to be understood and put into consideration especially at the time of research reporting section. This method will also facilitate in hypothesis and theories evaluation from the collected data.
Data collection
This study will depend mostly on the secondary data. This data from this study will be collected from the complied files of crime rate in the Law book of China. These books are published in the Chinese language where all the province crime rates are compiled in one section of the book. Again as indicated earlier the crime rates data is on the basis of the number of approved arrest that occurs in each province which are released annually. The other important thing to note is that data is not usually available for all the years making the data set to be a panel that is unbalanced.
In this case the source of information will be the government publications in China crime rates. These publications are indispensable in crime rates study and caution needs to be exercised in the results interpretation. Therefore, it is important to use the total number of persecutions in each crime as a variable. This is because it acts as another crime rate proxy and it is a variable that is usually applied in robustness especially in this study. This is what the research will apply in the data collection process for the study. After that data collected will be tabulated interpreted, analyzed appropriately recommendation and conclusion made.
References
Bellair, P. E. 1997. Social interaction and community crime: Examining the importance of neighbors networks. Criminology, 35, 677–704.
Liu, J. 2005. Crime patterns during the market transition in China. British Journal of Criminology, 45, 613–633.
Sampson, R. J., Morenoff, J., & Earls, F. 1999. Beyond social capital: spatial dynamics of collective efficacy for children. American Sociological Review, 64, 633–660.
Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. 1997. Neighborhoods and violent crime: a multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918–924.
Zhang, & S. F. Messner (Eds.), Crime and social control in a changing China (pp. 89–103). Westport,CT: Greenwood.