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Human Anatomy and Physiology
Human Anatomy and Physiology
a) Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and it is anaerobic. The net production is 2 molecules of Pyruvic acid, 2 NADH and 4 molecules of ATP per glucose.
b) Prep step occurs in the mitochondria and it is anaerobic. The net production is 2 molecules of CO2, 2 NADH and 1 ATP per glucose.
c) Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and it is aerobic. The net production is 4 molecules of CO2, 6 NADH molecules, 2 FADH2 molecules and 2 ATP molecules per glucose.
d) Oxidative Phosphorylation occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane and it is aerobic. The net production is 32 molecules of ATP.
2. Classification of Connective Tissues
Categories Subcategories Specialty
Connective Tissue Proper Loose Connective Tissue Main Cell: Fibroblasts
Location: Found between Organs
Function: It acts both to absorb shock and bind tissues together
Dense Connective Tissue Main Cell: Collagen Fibers
Location: Dermis of the Skin.Function: It enhancing tensile strength and resistance to stretching
Supportive Connective Tissue Bone Main Cell: Collagen fibers
Location: Internal body
Function: It allows the body to maintain its posture and protect internal organs.
Cartilage Main Cell: Proteoglycans
Location: Ear/Pinnae
Function: Connects bones together.
Fluid Connective Tissue Blood Main Cell: Erythrocytes
Location: Blood Vessels
Function: Transportation of oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.Lymph Main Cell: lymphocytes
Location: lymphatic vessels
Function: Responsible for the filtration of interstitial fluid from tissues, as well as absorption and transportation of fats from the digestive system into the bloodstream.
3. The functions of osseous tissue
It supports the body giving it shape.
It offers protection to internal body organs.
It stores minerals that are useful to the body and fats.
It facilitates the movement of the body.
It produces blood cells in the bone marrow.
4.
Brain Region Function
a. Frontal lobe
Responsible for cognition and memory, and control of movement.b. Occipital lobe
Responsible for Vision.c. Temporal lobe
Responsible for processing sensory inputs especially pain and hearing.
d. Thalamus
Responsible for language and movement.e. Hypothalamus
Responsible for linking the nervous system to the endocrine system.f. Medulla Oblongata
Controls various autonomic nervous system functions such as heart rate, breathing rates, etc.
g. Cerebrum Responsible for receiving and relaying meaning of information from the sense organs.5. Mechanisms for protecting the brain.The meninges: Comprises of three layers namely dura-mater, arachnoid layer and pia-mater that protects the brain as well as the spinal nerves that make up the peripheral nervous system.
Cerebrospinal fluid secreted in the ventricles within the subarachnoid space to protect the brain from trauma as well as to supply nutrients and remove waste after cerebral metabolism.
Blood supply to the brain through the carotid artery which provides the brain with nutrients. The blood stream also absorbs old cerebrospinal fluid.
The cranium protects the brain from injury by covering the top.
6. Hormones secreted by the pituitary gland
Hormone Site of Secretion Target Organ Function Tropism
Thyroid stimulating hormone Anterior Pituitary Thyroid gland Controls secretion of Thyroxin Tropic
Adrenocorticotropic hormone Anterior Pituitary The Adrenal cortex Controls cortisol secretion.Tropic.Growth hormone Anterior lobe of the Pituitary All tissues Regulates body metabolism and controls physical growth. Non-tropic
Luteinizing Hormone Anterior Pituitary Ovaries and Testes Controls ovulation and luteinization of follicles. Tropic
Follicle Stimulating Hormone Anterior Pituitary Ovaries and Testes Controls growth of ovarian follicles as well as secretion of oestrogen. Tropic
Prolactin Anterior Pituitary Mammary gland Controls production of milk.Non-tropic
7. Complete circuit of a Red Blood Cell
During osmoregulation, red blood cells flow to the kidneys through the right and left renal arteries. The arteries branch into arterioles within the kidney where blood flows at relatively high pressure into glomerulus. Glomerulus are found in the nephrons. The blood pressure drops from the glomerulus as it flows through the networks of arterioles surrounding the nephrons. After filtering, these tiny blood vessels join again to form the renal vein where blood flows out of the kidney.
8. The five main types of leukocytes
White Blood Cells Function
Basophils Responsible for allergic reactions
Neutrophils Fights bacteria and fungus.Monocytes Responsible for phygocytosis.Lymphocytes Identifies and destroys foreign invaders.
Eosinophil Responsible for fighting parasites and the modulation of allergic inflammatory responses.9. Functions of T lymphocytes and the B lymphocytes
T lymphocytes are produced in the bone marrow through the hematopoietic stem cells. They include cytotoxic t cells which kill virally infected cells through release of cytotoxic granules, T-helper cells which become activated by peptide antigens to release cytokines and to activate other cells, and memory T cells which are activated following an infection to provide a memory of previous similar infection to the immune system.
B lymphocytes are responsible for the production of antibodies and the presentation of antigens to T cells. They include plasma cells which are large lymphocytes composed of large volumes of endoplasmic reticulum that makes provision for the production of antibodies to specific antigens until the infection is fully controlled, memory B cells that remain in the body following an infection for future rapid response against a similar infection upon re-exposure, and the T-independent cells which are found in the spleen and are responsible for fighting polysaccharide-encapsulated bacteria by producing antibodies without the assistance of T cells.10. The structures an air molecule crosses on the way to the pulmonary capillary
During inhalation, the diaphragm falls thereby creating a negative pressure in the thoracic cavity causing lungs to inflate thus drawing air molecule from outside the body. The air is inhaled through the external nares where it is warmed to body temperature and made humid by mucous membrane in the nasal cavity. The warm air molecule then passes through the pharynx and larynx to the trachea. The trachea is made up of cartilages and smooth muscles that keep it open and prevent any collapse when passing air in or out. It is also has a wall lined with cilia which sieve any particles inhaled together with the air, moving them to the pharynx, and secretes mucus as well. Trachea branches into bronchus and bronchioles that are attached to alveoli ducts. These ducts have sacs at their ends where air molecules are exchanged. The alveoli have thin walls and are in direct contact with the pulmonary capillaries in the lungs where the air molecules diffuse through.
Describe the three pairs of salivary glands and ducts which secrete into the mouth
These three pairs are the sublingual gland, parotid, and submandibular. The parotid gland secretes serous, watery secretion while the mandibular gland produces a mixture of serous and mucus secretion. The sublingual gland secretes what is basically mucus.
Describe the three accessory digestive organs which empty into the duodenum , their ducts, and their secretions.
The liver is the largest secretory organ that secretes bile used in the chemical breakdown of food. Bile juice is transported using the bile duct. Pancreas secrets pancreatic juice into tiny ducts that come together to form two major ducts that later join the bile duct before entering the duodenum. The gall bladder found in the right lobe of the liver store and concentrates bile juice and propels the fluid through the common bile duct when triggered.
Describe in detail the structures a water molecule passes through the filtration membrane of the glomerulus to the urethra.
During glomerular filtration, small molecules of water pass rapidly through a filtration membrane while large molecules remain. However, if the concentration of the glomerular filtrate is high than the content at the other end, water moves from the capsular space through the membrane and joins the filtrate because the concentration of the filtrate is usually equal to that of the plasma to maintain osmotic balance.
Give the concentrations of sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium and pH for intracellular and extracellular fluid. Give two hormones (of many) which help regulate the levels of Na, K, and Cl.
Sodium and chloride are the major cation and anion respectively in the extracellular fluids. The hormones that control the levels of these electrolystes include Parathyroid hormone (PTH) and Calcitriol.
Fluid Electrolytes Concentration (mEq/L)
Extracellular Fluids Na 143
K 10
Cl 118
Ca 3
Intracellular K 142
Cl 5
Ca 10Na 12
Starting at the epididymis describe the passage of a sperm during the act of ejaculation.
During ejaculation, sperms is forcefully expelled from the back of the epididymis and joins the deferent duct. Here, the deferent duct moves the sperms upwards through the spermatic cord into the pelvic area. Here the sperms are above the ureter that is located at the back of the bladder. After this point, the vas deferens and the seminal vesicle join to become the ejaculatory duct, which goes by the prostate and pours the contents into the urethra. The sperm is propelled using rhythmic muscle movements.
What glands secrete into the male reproductive structure? Where do these secretions empty into and what function do they serve.
Accessory glands which include prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and the bulbourethral glands secrete fluids into the urethra. Seminal vesicles secrete a viscous fluid with a significant concentration of fructose which provides energy for the for the sperm enhancing mobility and viability. The prostate produce a thin, milky and alkaline fluid responsible for the motility of the sperm. Bulbourethral Glands produce a mucus like fluid that neutralizes acid found in the urethra from fragments of urine and acidic juices in the vagina.
Oogenesis is a complex process involving starts and stops. Describe Meiosis I and Meiosis II until fertilization occurs.
Oogenesis is basically meiosis because the later results in the production of oocytes which later becomes ova. Oogenesis or the process of Meiosis begins when an individual is in the womb.
Describe the process of gastrulation, the three germ layers, and which structures derive from these three layers.
Gastrulation is where cells move in the embryo to form the endoderm, the mesoderm, and the ectoderm which are three layers from which organs develop. Tissues of the nervous system and the epidermis develop from the ectoderm. Connective and muscle tissues come from the mesoderm while the gut and other internal organs grow from the endoderm.
Describe approximately when the following processes begin in a baby.
Heart begins to beat
22 days after the baby is conceived and can be noticed on screen after five weeks since the last period.
First neural activity detected in the brain
By week 4 the baby is already developing areas that will form major parts of the brain namely forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. However, it is not until the end of the fifth week does electrical activity begin in the brain.
Ossification ( bone development)
Begins when the embryo is 6 to 7 weeks.
Lungs begin to function
The lungs of a fetus do not begin to function until they are born. However, towards the end of the pregnancy, the fetus begins to inhale and exhale amniotic fluid periodically as some sort of practice.
HUM-176-Week-3-Assignment-Internet-and-Information-Paper
Hum 176 Week 3 Assignment
Internet and Information Paper
University of Phoenix
Hello Friend,
It is so good to hear from you and I would be happy to answer your questions about Internet. You are right when you assume that the Internet makes my life much easier when I need to find information on anything. Although the Internet is a vast resource of information but not all of the information available is correct. Whatever I do Internet search I asked myself specific questions about the information that I find. I asked myself these questions to assess and evaluate the value of the information I found during a search. For example I would check the domain of the website and its affiliations. I would also ask myself if I notice any bias on the website this happens often because people will put misinformation out there in order to sell or promote their business and or interest. Also I check multiple sources in order to ensure that the information that I just found. By checking multiple sources you can compare the information that you find in order to ensure that the information is reliable and credible. Another tip I can offer you for determining the credibility of the website is to read the text carefully and follow the grammar and spelling rules to be sure that there are no errors. Also how well is the site organized is easy to find information that you are looking for? If the answer to this question is no odds are that the website may not be credible reliable source for information. My reason for saying this is an expert in a specific field would take the time to organize and structure their website in a way to get their information across in the most easily understandable way. So if a website is just thrown together with no rhyme or reason and structure the odds are the purpose of the website is to not share information but to mislead you for alternative motives. In the final tool I use for evaluating a site’s credibility is what my gut instinct tells me. It is important to trust your gut instinct when using the World Wide Web because ultimately it does not feel right in your gut then it might be something fishy with the website. And to answer your question about the “digital divide” will be relatively simple because our relationship could be used as the definition. Digital divide is a technology difference or gap between geographic places that have access to Internet like I do and places that do not like you. For example here in the United States this digital divide can exist between individuals, households, businesses, and geographic areas that are in different social economic levels. Some places in America have access to mobile networks and Wi-Fi hotspots and others there are no mobile networks and Wi-Fi hotspots are nonexistent. People living in these areas that do not have access to the Internet and mobile networks are at a disadvantage because they cannot access the Internet. The digital divide can further be defined by comparing the United States to developing countries that do not have wide access to the Internet.
Best regards,
Your friend Scott Aldape
Fallacies Of Relevance In The Media
Fallacies Of Relevance In The Media
Fallacies of relevance are statements that do not offer solid evidence that can prove the truth of a certain conclusion made. Thus it is a requirement that conclusive evidence should be provided in order to claim that a statement is true. Fallacies can either be formal or informal. Formal fallacies are defined as deductive forms of arguments that are invalid. Informal fallacies are ways of reasoning that are clearly incorrect. There are different varieties of informal fallacies. Fallacies of relevance involve expressions that are emotionally relevant but are irrelevant logically. Some of these expressions are used in the media. Thus, critical thinking and careful evaluation of evidence is needed so as to know whether a statement is absolutely true.
There are many examples of fallacies of relevance in the media. Ad hominem fallacy is one of them which refer to an attack on the person who is advancing their argument and failing to attack the validity of the evidence being pointed out. The ad Hominem attack is commonly used in political campaigns. For instance in an interview with NBC news in September 2009, former president of America, Jimmy Carter used Ad hominem expressions to hit out at racists who showed animosity to President Barrack Obama because he is an African-American. CITATION Ric09 l 1033 (Larsen)Another example of fallacy relevance in the mediais the fallacy of affirming the consequent. In this type, a sub-category of a subject is used to confuse or complicate the general idea. For instance Sigmund Feud once argued that believe in God was an illusion and had its origins in infantile needs.CITATION Man09 p 268 l 1033 (Velasquez 268).
Argument from authority is another example. This refers to arguments which are usually made by authorities or by people with expertise in certain disciplines. Most people may end up believing that their arguments are true given that they touch on their professional fields. In 1990, the chief medical officer of the government, Sir Donald Acheson claimed that “Beef can be eaten by everyone both adults and children including patients from the National Health Service”.CITATION Lou10 p 173 l 1033 (Cummings 173).
Argument from non-testable hypothesis or ignorance another is also a relevant fallacy. Thisrefers to the arguments or claimsthat are taken to be true but have not yet been roven. These claims are almost impossible to be proved if true or false and are therefore accepted. Religious myths are accepted the way they are by believers who cannot proof them using mathematical or logic formulae. In 1988, de Cornulier stated that “If it were true, I would know it” in his explanation of the epistemic closureCITATION Dou10 p 147 l 1033 (Walton, Arguments from Ignorance 147).
The fallacy of band wagon is another example. This is an expression that suggests that popular or common ideas tend to be right. An advertisement once appeared in the dailies which stated “The perfume of the new millennium. Women of our country choose a subtle feminine fragrance. Carfoor is the most popular choice of the millennial woman. Career women say, ‘It’s feminine, but discrete. “Delightful, subtly feminine-and you can work, work, and play. Successful women choose this perfume”CITATION Tru13 p 163 l 1033 (Govier 163).
Another fallacy is dogmatism. This refers to total opposition of another person’s argument and not willing to even listen to that argument. This fallacy is common when a person holds a personal opinion that is either new or not yet popular among the majority. The great philosopher, Hegel once wrote” true philosopher has necessarily a negative side which is directed to all limited “which can be seen as absolute CITATION Ioa12 l 1033 (Trisokkas).
Emotional appeal is another fallacy of relevance in the media. This refers to the use of motions to try and win an argument. Emotional expressions often dominate in the argument rather than the validity of the ideas or suggestions being put across. In 1991, former president of South Africa, Nelson Mandela said in front of television cameras “I lead a life where I hardly get time to think”CITATION Eil12 p 65 l 1033 (Gambrill 65).
Fallacy of exclusion is another example. This refers to expressions which associate certain behaviors with only specific groups of people. Most tend to focus on their group behaviors and think such behaviors are uniquely of their group. A great scholar, Williams once said that “ This religion makes it harshly clear that belonging Jesus upsets other states of belongings-of status, of family and even membership of the children of Abraham” CITATION Den12 p 252 l 1033 (Dennis Doyle 252).
Fallacy of faulty analogy is also an example. This uses the analogy of comparing two different things and trying to relate them. This fallacy tries to make an idea appear valid by comparing it another different idea .Former president George Bush once said this statement while still in power “We should all open our our eyes and realize how dangerous Saddam Hussein is. He planned and executed attacks on Iran in the year 1980. He is also responsible for attacks on Israel, Kuwait and Iraq during which many civilians were killed”CITATION Nic09 p 49 l 1033 (Haase 49).
The fallacy of misunderstanding statistics is also relevant in the media. This is a fallacy where a small incident, mistake or error is mistaken for a large one. Small issues in reality can be taken as big and serious by others depending on their level of judgment. The great philosopher, Freud once said “the prerequisite for mental health is work and love”. Modern psychiatrists may not agree with this statement because of the statistical proof they haveCITATION Edg13 p 65 l 1033 (Levenson 65).
Moral equivalency is a fallacy that tries to equate moral issues that appear to be similar. This fallacy has an assumption that two or more moral issues usually weigh equally and are therefore more or less similar. Winston Churchill once said” A prisoner of war is a man who tries to kill you and fails and then asks you not to kill him”CITATION Jan10 p 69 l 1033 (J. Johnson 69).
Another example of fallacy relevance in media is the use of non sequitur. This fallacy refers to the expressions that point out the deviations of the conclusions from the evidences provides. They argue that there is no link between the conclusion given and the premises stated earlier on. Isaac Watts once write that “the eighteenth century despite giants like Hume and Kant was another dark age for logic with only a few immature strings behind the scenes from writers like Saccheri and Ploucquet to give promise to the future” CITATION Dov12 p 564 l 1033 (Dov M. Gabbay 564).
Faulty Causality is another example of fallacy used in the media. This fallacy is used to argue the co-relations between events. It involves a mistaken claim that one event caused another event or one situation led to another situation because they all happen in a sequential manner. In 1994 author Don Trent Jacobs accused Rush Limbaugh of being unfair to astrophysics Carl SaganCITATION DrH11 p 259 l 1033 (Dr Herbert W Simons 259).
Another example of fallacy relevance in media is the use of red herring. This fallacy refers to the use of expressions that suggest sudden change of a topic mid-debate so as to argue about a sub-topic that came up during the discussion. Morris .S.E. wrote once that” watching television should not be seen as causing harm to children because it occupies their minds for hours and keeps them off the streets” CITATION Mar12 p 269 l 1033 (Mayfield 269).
Semantics is another relevant fallacy used in the media some times. This refers to use of the ambiguous nature of language to create distractions from the main ideas under discussion. Sometimes, a deliberate rephrasing of contrary opinion is done incorrectly and then addressing the incorrect rephrase is done. Norman Malcolm once asked “what purpose could someone have in pronouncing,” I am a human being” “CITATION Esa07 p 13 l 1033 (Saarinen 13).
Slippery slope is another example. This fallacy involves putting across an argument that one change or situation will consequently lead to another. A writer once said this about gamblers “given the low probability and the many problems winners face, there must be other solutions if you have money to burn”CITATION Cin10 p 464 l 1033 (Griffin 464).
Straw Man is another relevant fallacy. This refers to presenting one side of an opinion to be very extreme so that everyone will be forced to disagree with it. According to Van E and Grootendorst in 1987” It is a rule of crucial discussion that any attacks on any standpoint should relate to the standpoint that has reallybeen advanced by its roper proponent”CITATION Dou13 p 29 l 1033 (Walton, Methods of Argumentation 29)Another example of relevance of fallacies in media is the use of glittering generality. This refers to the use of certain words with broad definitions such as patriotism or love in such a manner that they become meaningless. A newspaper column in 1991 read” Two weeks ago, Ajax pharmacy was robbed and the suspect was a black man. Yesterday, a black teenager snatched an old lady’s purse while she was standing at the corner bus stop. Clearly blacks are nothing but a pack of criminals”
Failing Occam’s razor is another example of fallacy that can be used in the media. This fallacy holds an opinion that in any scientific formulae or principle the most simple. Moore and Parker pointed out “anecdotes proof nothing “CITATION Lou09 p 39 l 1033 (Groarke 39).
Excluded middle fallacy is also an example of a relevant fallacy that is used in media. It refers to the picturing of one issue or idea as one between two given extremes with no presence of a neutral ground. Wright committed exclusion of middle fallacy by writing” If Jesus is not the last prophet then He is a false prophet”CITATION Luk13 p 56 l 1033 (L. T. Johnson 56).
Works cited
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