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Explain the criminal justice Funnel. Is this a realistic model of criminal justice in our society
Explain the criminal justice Funnel. Is this a realistic model of criminal justice in our society?
Introduction
Criminal justice is process that involves series of stages that start with criminal investigation and ends with the act of freeing the person who has offended from correctional supervision. This process incorporates rules and decision making as the central theme. This field has grown significantly over the past years and it is mainly directed towards the study of crime and criminal justice in variety of societies across the world. It is been fostered by the fact globalization as it is the main national trend in most countries in the world. There is need to understand that crime issues and the response from the society members are subject to forces of the globalization (Erin, 2003)
The criminal justice funnelCriminal justice as a process is like a funnel which is characterized by wider top and narrower bottom. There are several cases in the initial stages of the criminal process which are then eliminated as the process continues to the top. Cases are eradicate as the process continues due to the fact that decisions made at any stage influence the number of cases that will proceed to another stage. The number of cases decreases as decision makers discharge other cases and others are referred for analysis. The funnel characteristic of the criminal justice can be best expressed by the fact that there are many suspects and defendants than the inmates. The U.S. constitution mandates the government to suppress any form of deprivation of privacy, life liberty and right to property. This can be effectively achieved through proper criminal justice process (Larry, 2008)
The criminal justice has never been effective and efficient in most societies. In criminal justice process, assessments are in marsed on prudence i.e. the individual exercise of judgment to make choices on possible actions to take. Decisions are sometime made without any formal rules and procedures that can lead to effective implementation of policies hence it can be a true way of eliminating some kind of vices in the society. Police in most cases are never genuine due to the fact that discretion comes into play whenever they are making decisions on whether to carry proper investigation, to arrest or use force in certain criminal issues. The model is not realistic in our societies because prosecutors are given the power to exercise their individual judgment when arriving at decisions on whether to charge an individual with a crime or whether to plea-bargain. The decisions reached depend entirely on the judgment of the prosecutors as they employ discretion when setting bail, accepting or rejecting bail and handling of sentence cases (Larry, 2008)
The criminal justice funnel is not effective and cannot be a realistic model for criminal justice due to presents of informal practices. It is quite imperative for all official courtroom work group to clearly comprehend what occurs more often in the daily life of the society. The informal processes that are sometime used in arriving at conclusions on whether to sentence someone affects policing, plea bargaining. This has been a very common feature in most criminal justice agencies especially among complex institution (Larry, 2008)
Different circumstances have compelled lawmakers to enforce laws whose intentions are perceived as outright unjust by different members in the society. When dealing with criminal cases, improper means for personal gains that are unjust. Criminal justice processes create laws that are direct reflection of values of the population in the society. In most cases, individuals are faced with certain commands that are contrary to the justice and fairness which should prevail in the society. Social antagonism to unfair laws may generate communal customs that can have countervailing effects on permissible interference (Erin, 2003)
References List
Erin, K. (2003). Criminal Justice. 20-68.
Larry, J. (2008). Criminology. 500-510
Explain Kitchers proposed factors for assessing humans chances for a reasonable quality of life, and the sorts of genetic dis
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Human and Biology
Part A: Explain Kitcher’s proposed factors for assessing humans’ chances for a reasonable quality of life, the sorts of genetic diseases that prevent it, and responsible or enlightened eugenic decision-making.
Eugenics or genetic modification is a medical field that has raised various social and ethical concerns since its adoption. Nevertheless, it can not be disputed that it is fundamental in enhancing the quality of life of individual through timely elimination of diseases. Its scope has been widened over time to incorporate genetic engineering and creation of individuals with ideal personalities. The most common ethical concern in this regard has been related to commoditization of humans. In his research, Kitcher contends that parental free choice should be employed on a minimal scale and only when it is absolutely necessary (161). He cites that parental free choice is likely to culminate in various social and ethical problems (Kitcher 133). These include the probability of reduction of biological diversity as individuals will tend to entirely prefer the most ideal traits and as well as the possibility of reinforcing racism and widening of the gap between the rich and the poor.
In his research, Kitcher advocates for enhancement of the quality of life of individuals and argues that this should be at the center stage of all forms of decisions (154). He contends that it is based on the ethical principle of beneficence and therefore stipulates that measures need to be undertaken to enhance the quality of the future of life and eliminate possible diseases that could compromise this. To begin with, this can be achieved through the process of genetic testing and screening. This seeks to identify defective genes that could contribute to defects in future and if possible make alterations accordingly. If it is impossible, it opts for selective abortion. Another option that can be used to prevent individuals from being born with genetic defects is pre-implantation selection that employs fetuses that have ideal characteristics (Kitcher 156). Reproductive decisions are influenced by the nature of resource distribution. Notably, this determines the medical decisions that are adopted by the affected individuals.
Kitcher contends that decision making with regards to parental choice needs to be based on credible information and enlightenment (Kitcher 243). This can be achieved through public education and awareness creation. Credible information in this respect needs to be relayed to the public to enable them make personal and informed decisions out of free will rather than coercion. At this juncture, it is worth acknowledging that medical decisions in this regard can have far reaching implication on the health of the individuals. In addition, they are expensive and require significant resources for successful operation. In this regard therefore, it is vital for the decision making process to be devoid of any complexities. Indeed sufficient knowledge needs to be availed to the affected parties. The main goal according to him needs to be to enhance the quality of life of an individual while allowing for freedom with regard to decision making. Fundamental knowledge would enable the concerned individuals to make viable choices that would help them attain this important goal.
Part B: Explain Stock’s position of maximalist (Stock’s article “The Enhanced and the Un-Enhanced”) eugenics and how it differs from Kitcher’s minimalist eugenics.
In his review, Stock assumes a different perception of the role of technology in reproduction. He argues that there should be no limits with regard to the types of genes that should be employed in manipulating the genetic make up of humans in order to come up with ideal characteristics. According to him, the relevant bodies should allow for the wide spread utilization of a variety of genes in order to attain an enhanced status of human wellbeing (Stock 56). He indicates that use of technology in genetics is inevitable because it seeks to address the needs and requirements of the dynamic world.
In this respect, he indicates that the world is increasingly changing and in the near future, humans would be compelled to use the technology in order for them to address the relative problems with ease. Further. Stock affirms that technology is an intrinsic aspect of human wellbeing that needs to be incorporated in their lives (58). Over time, it has been employed in various activities that seek to improve the quality of life of humans. Most importantly, it was invented and developed by humans and therefore it needs to be employed for human benefit. It is in this consideration that stock justifies the use of technology and argues that it does not need to raise any concerns (Stock 65).
From his analysis, it can be ascertained that Stock can make varied changes to the position assumed by Kitcher. One possible challenge would be the inability of Kitcher to fully explore the possibilities that are provided by the technology to enhance the wellbeing of humanity. In addition, Stock can challenge the position of Kitcher by highlighting that his failure to utilize all the genetic options has contributed to the creation of individuals that can not cope with the daily challenges with ease. This could be based on the realization that more than ever, global dynamism is presenting various challenges that require executive functioning of human beings.
On the other hand Kitcher could challenge the position of Stock with reference to failing to consider vital ethical concerns that govern the interaction and holistic wellbeing of humanity (Kitcher 118). In this regard, it can be argued that he approach that is assumed by Stock is likely to culminate in social conflicts and threaten social cohesion that is fundamental for growth and development. In addition, Kitcher could challenge stock by indicating that his approach is likely to lead to loss and possible extinction of genetic diversity. This is likely to result in low immunity and threaten the survival of humanity as they would lack fundamental immunity against diseases.
From the analysis, it is certain that the approach that is assumed by Kitcher regarding eugenic decision making is more logical that that assumed by his counterpart, Stock. To begin with, it should be acknowledged that technology is not the only aspect that influences human behavior regardless of the fact that it has numerous advantages that would enhance the wellbeing of the same. Humanity should be understood to be a complex conception that is influenced by a host of factors that are social, economic and cultural in nature. Since technology has been invented recently, it has to be mainstreamed in the system rather than control the same.
In addition, it would be imperative to mainstream rather than impose technology in order to enhance sustainability. This is defined by acceptance of the technology by the population and it goes a long way in enhancing effectiveness of the same. Notably, Kitcher fulfills these conditions by enlightening the community on the implications of the same before allowing them to make personal and informed decisions regarding the employment of eugenics (Kitcher 243). At this point in time, it can be contended that Kitchre’s approach is more viable and would be more beneficial to humanity than Stock’s.
Part C: The essay by Michael Sandel (“The Case against Perfection”) raises disturbing ethical problems concerning a society that involves extensive eugenic decision-making.
In his analysis, Sandel contends that genetic engineering has adverse implications on the wellbeing of humanity. He cites the example of athletics and argues that this is likely to culminate in unfair competition with the “real” human beings (Sandel 34). This is because of the fact that the enhance humans have superb characteristics that make them perfect and therefore more competitive in the society. It would further widen the gap between the rich and the poor as those who can afford these services would have an upper hand in social and economic prosperity. This disadvantages the nature humans as they are relatively less competitive because of natural defects.
In addition, Sandel indicates that this would significantly shift the responsibilities of parents with regard to reproduction (44). Instead of utilizing chance to come up with ideal off springs, they would be charged with the responsibility of choosing the ideal children. As such, they would be liable to punishment whenever they make wrong choices. Further, Mandel also notes that the procedure makes an individual less human because the natural characteristics that define humanity are eliminated (51).
I think to a certain extent, the preposition presented by Sandel are misinformed and therefore culminate in an unfair judgment of eugenics. As indicated earlier, it is worth acknowledging that he current world is characterized by a great degree of dynamism that requires humanity to assume viable characteristics in order to function effectively. Indeed, the challenges being presented currently are wide and varied and can only be effectively addressed through multi faceted approaches. Current human qualities are definite in nature and this prevents them from attaining a state of optimal functioning. They limit the same in exploring various opportunities that would enhance their overall welfare.
According to Kitcher, genetic engineering seeks to eliminate diseases and improve the quality of life of individual (231). This is ethically right and it is inclined in the moral principle of beneficence. Since the future world is likely to present more challenges than the current word, it becomes imperative to equip the future generations with vital capacities that would enable them to cope with the future problems with ease. This can only be attained through genetic engineering that eliminates diseases and improves the quality of life of these individuals. Nevertheless, it can be contended that the process needs to be modulated and incorporated in the current system through time. This would be instrumental in avoiding conflicts that are likely to arise due to the contravention of critical societal values that are currently employed in governance of human interactions. Alternatively, these can be addressed through societal enlightenment, education and awareness building (Kitcher 234). The impact on personal attitudes in this respect is likely to yield positive results.
Works Cited
Gregory, Stock. Redesigning Humans. USA: Mariner Books, 2003.
Michael, Sandel. Case Against Perfection: Ethics in Eugenics. Harvard: University Press, 2007.
Phillip, Kitcher. The Future Lives. USA: Free Press, 1997.
Explain in your own words the process by which banks create money.
Explain in your own words the process by which banks “create” money.
The process by which the banks make create money is based on their ability to advance money to their customers (Burgi, 1994). Creation of money is not the actual printing of the money; it is the accounting process in which money lent out is credited on the bank’s books. The loans advanced are a liability from the bank. The actual money that the bank is literally working with, the float, is much less than the money that reflects on the accounts (Burgi, 1994).
Let’s take an example that person A deposits $1000, in a bank account with bank M. person B comes and borrows $500 at a 10% interest repayment rate, this means that $550 will be credited on the banks accounts. Person C comes and borrows $300 at 10% interest repayment rate, the bank will credit $330 to their account. The accounts will look something like this:
Credit
person A 1000 1000
Person B 550
Person C 330
Total 1880
The ban according to their books they have $1880 but practically they only have $200 left from the initial money deposited by person A.
Discuss the impact of that ability to create money on the economy during an inflationary gap, as well as during a recessionary gap. Considering the higher rates of unemployment and the likelihood of lower prices during a recessionary gap, do banks with their lending policies, contribute to a recovery back to potential output, or hinder that recovery? Why do you believe your answer to be correct? What about during an inflationary gap?
During a recessionary gap there are high levels of unemployment and a decrease in the average price level. This means that there isn’t enough money circulating in the economy and this means there is a decrease in aggregate demand and supply (Arnold, 2013). In order to increase the level of employment, there should be an increase in the money created by the banks in order to increase the amount of loans advanced to people. This will increase the level of investment and increase the aggregate supply due to increase in loans and increase aggregate demand because there will be more money circulating the economy. This will lead to an increase in the average price and will attract even more production and supply of commodities. Banks will aid in the recovery process.
The above answer is true because it confirms the Philips curve that is based on the assumption that in order to decrease unemployment by 1%, there must be a 3% increase in the level of inflation and the reverse is also true (Arnold, 2013). This is because more money decreases unemployment but increases the average price level.
During an inflationary gap the average prices of commodities are relatively high and the currency is usually devalued. Inflation is usually as a result of increase in the quantity of money that is circulating in the economy (Arnold, 2013). So when the banks continue to create more and more money during a period when there is inflation, then the inflationary gap will continue to increase and the economy becomes unstable. In order to curb inflation and to bring back the economy to stability where markets can clear, the banks should reduce the loans they advance to their clients by decreasing the money creation process.
References
Burgi Ed, (1994), Money Creation: The Great Confidence Trick, Orthodox Print Press, New York
Arnold, A. Roger, (2013), Economics (Arnold) 11th Edition, Prentice Hall Print, New Jersey