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Alfalfa improvement in Oman – Prospect and Procedures
List of Contents
1. Introduction 3
1.1 General Introduction 3
1.2 Alfalfa improvement in Oman – Prospect and Procedures 4
1.2.1 Why Medicago sativa? 4
1.2.2 Present Position 4
1.2.3 Alfalfa Growing Regions 5
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6 Alfafa: A perennial legume
Improvement objectives for cultivar development
Constraints in Alfalfa Improvement 11
6
8
1.3 Problems related to a biotic and biotic management factors 12
1.3.1 Soil and Water Salinity 12
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5 Water Scarcity
Diseases 14
Insect pests 15
Nematodes 15 13
1.4 Mechanization 15
1.5 Agronomic Characters 16
1.5.1 Effects of salinity on physiologic parameters 16
1.6 Alfalfa’s Genetic Diversity 17
1.6.1 Genetic Mapping 17
1.7 Experimental Aims 24
2. Materials and Methods 19
2.1 Recordings and Observations 19
2.1.1 Agronomic Characters 20
2.1.2 Determination of Ionic concentration in plant tissues 20
2.1.3 Determination of phosphorus 20
2.1.4 Determination of total potassium, Na, Ca and M 21
2.1.5 Determination of Chloride 21
2.2 Molecular studies 22
2.2.1 SSR Analysis 22
2.2.2 Statistical Analysis 23
2.2.3 Phenotypic Data Analysis 23
2.2.4 Genomic DNA Extraction 23
2.2.5 Pre and Post Selective PCR 24
2.2.6 Fragment Analysis 24
2.2.7 Genetic Distance Estimates and Cluster Analysis 24
3. Results and Discussion 25
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 4. Conclusions and Further work 25
4.1 Conclusions 25
4.2 Further work 25
5. References 26
6. Appendices 1. Introduction 1.1 General IntroductionIn Arid and semi arid lands, farmers depend solely on animal husbandry to cater for their livelihoods. In this regard, they practice large scale ranching in which they keep wide ranging livestock species. Limited rainfall greatly undermines their ability to explore other forms of farming effectively. For sustainable animal farming, they focus on plants that are highly productive. Certainly, forages of high digestibility and nutritive value enable them to reap optimally from these farming practices. This is at the core of their sustainable economic goals and objectives. Just like other farmers inhabiting arid and semi arid lands, farmers in Sultanate of Oman explore animal husbandry to sustain their livelihoods. This requires them to produce high quality forage for their animals in order to benefit optimally from the same. Alfalfa, scientifically, known as medicago sativa offers the best option for this. Michaud et al. (1988) stated that it is difficult to define precisely when and how alfalfa spread and reached various countries and areas. They explained that maritime trade was well developed in the eastern Mediterranean as early as 4000 B.C., which could have contributed to the spread of alfalfa and may have resulted in significant mixture of hybridization of ecotypes from widely separated regions.
Evidence of the ancient introductions of alfalfa into the Arabian Gulf is found in strongly marked characteristics of Arabian varieties which resulted from centuries of acclimatization in the arid region leading to the evolution of many unique local ecotypes of this crop. Relatively little use has been made of Middle Eastern alfalfa germplasm in formal breeding programs largely because variations among accessions from this region have not been systematically described or made widely available (Smith et al., 1995)
1.2 Alfalfa improvement in Oman – Prospect and Procedures1.2.1 Why Medicago sativa?
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), the Queen of forage crops, forms an integral part of farm life in the Sultanate. Every farmer desires to grow it at least in small pieces of land depending on his holding to feed his goats, cattle or camels. Alfalfa plays a vital role in the agricultural economy of the country. In this regard, it accounts for almost half of the agricultural output (by value). It is the best quality feed for livestock as well as horses, contributing significantly to the quality of animal products. Nationally, it ranks top amongst the agricultural crops and has an annual production of an estimated 8.1 US dollars. Alfalfa forage is produced (harvested) throughout the year but it is higher during winter and low in summer.
It is a remarkable crop in comparison with others. Alfalfa is recognized as the most widely adapted agronomic crop, effective source of biological nitrogen (N2) fixation, energy efficient- crop to grow, important source of protein yield/ha and attractive source of nectar for honeybees. In addition to being an excellent source of vitamins and minerals, it is important for improving soil tilth (Barnes et .al., 1984). It is believed that alfalfa originated in South Western Asia (near Iran) but related forms and species are found scattered over central Asia as far north as Siberia. It was carried from Iran to Arabian Gulf, the Mediterranean countries and finally into Europe, America and Australia by traders, invading armies, explorers and missionaries as a valuable source of feed for horses and other animals. Evidence of the ancient introductions of alfalfa into the Arabian gulf is found in strongly marked characteristics of Arabian varieties resulted from centuries of acclimatization in the arid region. Few authors consider Arabian Peninsula as secondary center of diversity.
1.2.2 Present PositionThe Sultanate of Oman, being the third largest country in the Arabian Peninsula, has 73670.59 ha of agricultural land under cultivation of which fruits occupy a significant 50.33 % followed by perennial fodders (22.03 %), vegetables (8.41 %) and field crops (19.23 %). The total production, however, is shared highest by perennial fodders (53.09 %) followed by fruits (27.16 %), vegetables (15.67 %) and grain crops (4.08 %) (MoA, 2010). The fodder demand in the Sultanate is mostly met by the local production of alfalfa and Rhodes grass.
Table 1. Area and distribution of alfalfa in Oman1 (1995 data)
Sl.No. Region Cultivated Area (ha) Area under alfalfa (ha) % of alfalfa area
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9. South Batinah
North Batinah
Sharqiya
Al-Wasta
Dhofar
Muscat
Dhahira
Interior
Musandam 11678
20643
7537
13
2822
3377
9421
6897
796 2411
3190
787
3
66
623
1662
1009
15 20.65
15.45
10.44
23.08
2.34
18.45
17.64
14.63
1.88
Total — 63184 9766 15.46
1. Department of Agriculture Statistics, Directorate General Planning and Projects, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) forms an integral part of farm life in the Sultanate, as every farmer desires to grow it at least in small piece of land depending on his holding to feed his goat, sheep, cattle or camel, thus contributing about 11344 ha i.e. 15.40 percent of cultivated area (MAF, 1997). This feature seems to be common case throughout the Arabian Peninsula. It is grown widely in Batinah, Salalah plains, Interior and desert plains of Nejd. The region wise distribution cultivated area of alfalfa in the country is presented in Table 1.
1.2.3 Alfalfa Growing RegionsThe major alfalfa growing regions are North Batinah (3190 ha), South Batinah (2411 ha), Dhahira (1662 ha) and Interior (1009 ha), which together share 84.70% of total alfalfa area. Interestingly, of these major growing regions, South Batinah (20.65%) has highest percentage of its area in alfalfa followed by Dhahira (17.64%), North Batinah (15.45%) and Interior (14.63%).
The planting is usually done between November and January. The crop is cut first after about 60 to 70 days and then every 25-40 days up to 10-11 times in a year. Typical yield of green matter is about 40 t/ha/year. The national average green matter production and productivity of alfalfa from 1990 to 1997 is depicted in Table 2 (MAF, 1990-97).
Table 2. Area, Production and Productivity of alfalfa from 1990 to 1998
in Oman 1
Year Area (ha) Production
(‘000 t) Productivity (t/ha) Productivity (t/ha)/ cut
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998 9000.0
9021.0
9241.0
9240.0
11047.9
11302.5
11344.5
11344.5
11042.9 345.6
360.8
372.7
375.0
445.3
455.6
487.7
490.0
460.5 38.40 3.84
40.00 4.00
40.33 4.03
40.58 4.06
40.31 4.03
40.31 4.03
43.00 4.30
43.19 4.32
41.70 4.17
1. Department of Agriculture Statistics, Directorate General Planning and Projects, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Sultanate of Oman
1.2.4 Alfafa: A perennial legumeFrom the point of view of the farmers, Alfafa is a perennial legume that is affordable, yet of very high digestibility and nutritive value. This enables the farmers to explore it at affordable prices and be able to reap optimal yields ultimately. It is persistent in nature and upon harvesting, it’s quite voluminous. The fact that weather conditions have minimal effects on its productivity enables it to be transferred to different regions with ease. It’s well known for its idyllic persistence and adaptability in new regions.
Among the number of agro-ecotypes of Oman, perennial locals viz. Oman Interior local and Batinah local are popular as they are stand persistent owing to their adaptability to the normal practice of ground level cutting by the farmers. A number of landraces that have been differentiated over centuries have been recognized mainly on the basis of longevity. The variants of “Batini” type have an expected life span of 8-10 years in the Batinah but they perform poorly when grown in the mountains.
There are local strains in Hajar Mountains which are known to persist over ten years, but they fail when grown down in the coast, where “Qaryati” is popular. There are also distinct types grown in different regions like “Sharqiya” around Sur and “Omani” in Interior region. The strains in the South have been found distinct from those of North. In 1987-1988 IPGRI, previously IBPGR, collected 87 alfalfa landraces. The collection mission covered most of the area of Oman. Presently, 87 alfalfa accessions were conserved in ICARDA Gene Bank (Guarino, 1987; MAF, 1989). In addition, seven accessions of alfalfa have been conserved in National gene bank of USA
High productivity
Figure 1: Productivity of Alfalfa
Recent researches ascertain that Alfalfa can produce high yields as well as high quality forage. This is attributable to the inbreeding practices that have ensured production of high quality species. Relative scientific efforts are devotedly geared towards improving its yield and quality. Depending on the environmental conditions and type of soil, alfalfa yields a significant 50 to 100 tons of forage per hectare. Dry matter in such instances ranges from 12 to 19 tons per hectare. Compared to other forage plants, its productivity is relatively high.
1.2.5 Improvement objectives for cultivar development
The ultimate objective of any cultivar improvement program is the development of germplasm that will enhance production of the crop. Alfalfa use varies from production of green forage (fresh or stored) in intensive forage -animal production systems to a legume in pastures and ranges in extensive forage -animal systems. The goals of alfalfa breeding programs vary considerably, depending on the intended use of the germplasm under development. Nonetheless, there are some traits considered important by most alfalfa breeding programs.
Yield:
Alfalfa is valued for its ability to produce high yields of high-quality forage. Although alfalfa is used in pastures and ranges, most breeding programs attempt to develop cultivars that will perform well under intensive forage production systems. Most alfalfa breeders feel that a cultivar will not be economically successful unless it is adapted to intensive forage programs.
Genetic increases in alfalfa yield have been about 3% per decade (Elliot et al., 1972; Hill and Kalton, 1976). The total increase in yields obtained by farmers has been greater than this, but part of the increase must be attributed to better management and fertility practices. Separation of genetic from non-genetic increases is difficult because some of the total increase has been the result of cultivars better adapted to intensive management and high fertility.
Several reasons can be proposed for the lower rate of genetic improvement for yield in alfalfa than for the grain crops. Evans (1980) suggested that much of the improvement in seed yield was the result of shunting photosynthetic products to organs or plant tissues of greater economic value. This route has not been available to alfalfa breeders because the entire plant is of economic value. A second possible reason for the lower rate of progress is that alfalfa is perennial with multiple harvests per growing season. The perennial growth habits of alfalfa dictates that the same plot be observed for several years before selections are made. This increases the time per selection cycle, and under such conditions, an equal gain per cycle of selection would translate to a lower rate of gain for a given time period. A third reason for the lower rate of progress in increasing yield may be that alfalfa is an auto-tetraploid (2n=4x=32). The breeding methods that have been effective with diploid crop species are not as effective when applied to alfalfa.
Pest Resistance:
Increased levels of pest resistance have been a major success of alfalfa breeding. Many alfalfa breeders work cooperatively with plant pathologists or entomologists, and effective techniques for increasing pest resistance have been developed. Procedures for evaluating resistance have been standardized, and susceptible and resistant lines have been identified for many of the disease and insect pests of alfalfa (Elgin, 1984).
Multiple-pest resistance is a major goal of most alfalfa improvement programs today. The most recent cultivars usually have moderate or higher levels of resistance to bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum Schlecht f.sp. medicaginis (Weimer) Snyd. & Hans.), Anthracnose (Colletotrichum trifolii Bain & Essary), Phtophthora root rot, the pea aphid, and the spotted alfalfa aphid. When vertcillium wilt (Vertcillium albo-atrum Reinke & Berth.) was first discovered in the United States, public and private agencies immediately initiated efforts to incorporate resistance into aphid germplasm. Many of the newer cultivars have moderate or higher levels of resistance to verticillium wilt. Germplasm or cultivars with resistance to a number of other alfalfa pests also have been developed.
Increased pest resistance has been an indirect contributor to increased yields. Spectacular differences in yield can be observed when resistant and susceptible cultivars are grown on a site known to harbor a particular disease or insect pest.
Much of the breeding for pest resistance is done in greenhouse and growth- chamber facilities. Most selections made in the greenhouse and growth-chamber facilities are resistant when tested under field conditions.
Although progress in breeding for multiple-pest resistance in alfalfa has been spectacular, suitable resistance to a number of disease and insect pests has not been found, including fusarium root rot and crown rot [Fusarium solani (Mart.) Appel & Wr. and F. roseum Lk. ex Fr. emend. Snyd. & Hans.), the alfalfa blotch leaf minor (Agromyza frontella (Rondani)], and the clover root curculio [Sitonia hispidula (F)]. A degree of tolerance has been found in some cases, like the alfalfa weevil [Hypera postica (Gyllenhall)] and the potato leaf hopper [Empuasca fabae (Harris)], but the level is not great enough to provide protection in severe infestations or epidemics.
The success in breeding for pest resistance depends on developing methods that permit accurate identification of resistant genotypes. Once this is done, a satisfactory level of resistance to most alfalfa pests often can be obtained in three to five cycles of selection. The inability to find resistance to some diseases or insect pests can very likely be attributed to the lack of a suitable method of identifying resistance.
Quality:
Alfalfa has a higher feeding value than most forage crops. Some effort is being devoted to greater improvement of alfalfa forage quality. Valid improvement program objectives include increased protein concentration, decreased fiber (increased digestibility), and reduction of bloat potential.
Protein concentration:
Alfalfa serves as an important on-farm protein source for ruminant animals. In many farm animal operations, the value of the protein from alfalfa is a major economic justification for growing the crop. Alfalfa was the most efficient species discussed by Heichel (1976) for production of protein. Heritability of protein concentration in alfalfa is relatively high, and progress in breeding for higher concentrations can be expected (Hill and Barnes, 1977; Sumberg et al., 1983). Selection for increased protein concentration often indirectly improves other quality constituents (Cooper, 1973). Near-infra-red reflectance spectroscopy is probably the most economical method for measuring protein concentration in alfalfa forage samples (Shenk et al., 1981).
1.2.6 Constraints in Alfalfa Improvement
Fungal diseases such as crown rot are another factors causing evident yield reduction. In addition, the local cultivars and ecotypes of alfalfa in different regions of the country are at present facing the problems of high temperature, drought and/or salinity. Few researches have been carried out in Sultan Qaboos University and at the regional agricultural research stations. Esechie et al. (2002) investigated the effect of N fertilizer on shoot and root growth in salinity-stressed alfalfa. Esechie and Rodriguez (1999) investigated the effects of salinity in leaf growth of alfalfa. Esechie et al. (1998) studied the effects of salinity on biomass production, nodulation and N2 fixation in an Omani alfalfa accession “Batini”. Esechie and Rodriguez (1998) compared the distribution of ions in the leaf, stem and roots of alfalfa seedlings irrigated with saline solutions during cool season and warm season in Oman. Esechie (1993) investigated response of alfalfa seed germination to salinity and temperature. The NaCl salinity resulted in substantial reductions in growth, N2 fixation percentage, and total fixed N2 in alfalfa and the effect was more pronounced for the second cuttings than the first ones (Tucker et al,1992).
These factors, together, call for improvement of local cultivars through appropriate breeding programs. The task of crop improvement will be more successful when we have thorough knowledge of their genetic variations. These ecotypes are routinely differentiated using morphological descriptors, and although such descriptions are indeed useful from a breeding perspective, they are inadequate for analysis of population genetic structure. Cultivated alfalfa is autotetraploid (2n = 4x = 32) (McCoy and Bingham 1988), cross-pollinated (allogamous) and seed propagated. The genetic progress is slow in this legume species because of its autotetraploidy and allogamy (Julier et al., 2003). One way to identify the maximally diverse parental genotypes is through an evaluation of genetic diversity using molecular markers. Simple sequence repeat (SSR) or microsatellite markers are codominant, abundant and hyper variable molecular markers from eukaryotic genomes that are being widely used in genetic mapping, phylogenetic studies and marker-assisted selection ((He et al. 2003a). The use of SSR loci as polymorphic DNA markers has expanded considerably over the past decade both in the number of studies and in the number of organisms, primarily due to their facility and power for population genetic analyses (Touil et al., 2008).Currently, the number of available SSR markers is still very limited for use in alfalfa (He et al., 2003b). He et al., (2009) developed 78 genomic SSRs obtained from alfalfa with excellent utility for polymorphic assessment and potential application for phylogenetic and genetic mapping studies of alfalfa. Esechie el at., (2009) evaluated the genetic diversity in Omani alfalfa germplasm and found the existence of variability among 15 Oman alfalfa accessions using the RAPD technique. However, further studies are needed to assess Omani alfalfa in respect of prevailing situation of biotic and abiotic factors especially the salinity.
1.3 Problems related to a biotic and biotic management factors
1.3.1 Soil and Water Salinity:
Until mid-seventies, water demand and supply were relatively well balanced. Subsequently, high water demand has led to over pumping and prolonged drought has reduced the extent of recharge. These situations have been progressively deteriorating the quality of both water and soil towards salinity. The affected areas are mostly the farms near the coast, which have abundant but saline water (4-16 dS/m). In the Interior and other regions, however, there is occurrence of dryland salinity where the hydrology of an area has been modified by clearance of vegetation and changed land management practices. Salinity of such water and soil has exceeded the limit tolerable by the economic food or forage crops. Thus, changing situation in both water and soil as mentioned above would expectedly affect the future fodder production in the country since major fodder crops like alfalfa are moderately sensitive (Maas and Hoffman, 1977 and Maas, 1986). This fact assumes much importance because of introduction of sprinkler irrigation. Irrigating alfalfa with water having more than 3 meq/l of Na and Cl by sprinklers during daytime cause severe leaf burn and reduce the crop growth. However, resorting to nighttime irrigation leads to the recovery of crop from the injury (FAO, 1973). Such management to reduce the effect of salinity in already existing cultivars does seem to be practicable when the level of salinity rises higher than the limit tolerable by the crop. Under such circumstances, it would be appropriate and the only approach, to breed genotypes in alfalfa that would be tolerant to desired level of salinity.
1.3.2 Water Scarcity:Sultanate is categorized as arid country with low rain fall and high evapo-transpiration (ET). Rainfall varies from less than 50 mm in central Oman to more than 300 mm in north Oman Mountains. Ground water is the main source of water for both domestic and agriculture use. A large area of Batinah, the major agriculture region of the country, is facing a crucial problem of groundwater level decline and substantial deficit of fresh groundwater. Over pumping is the main reason for substantial deficit of fresh groundwater. Consequently, the fresh groundwater in the Batinah region has become saline due to sea water intrusion.
The consequences of aridity and high water use in Batinah have caused negative impacts on its agriculture environment viz. groundwater deficit and salinity. Impacts mainly include farm abandonment. These situations have led to a suggestion for imposition of desertification in Batinah (Al-Lawati, 1998 and FAO, 2008). On the other hand, limiting water resources in the country culminate in allocation of water to crops that yield higher and have better water-use efficiency.
At this point, it cannot be disputed that crop improvement is at the core of improved economic activity. Seemingly, this is highly depended on the availability of wide ranging germ plasm as well as efficient utilization of the same. Seemingly, alfalfa is distributed globally and grown in varied environments. The relative geographic expansion and adaptation enhances genetic variation and allows technicians to use diverse gene pools. Notably, alfalfa is an open pollinated, autotetraplod species. It is characterized by pronounced inbreeding depression and tetrasomic inheritance.
In light of above information, alfalfa, being the prime and preferred forage crop in Oman, could be explored for its improvement. This can be attained through plant breeding in a bid to develop high yielding genotypes that have high water-use efficiency and which are suitable under sprinkler irrigation. Notably, this would encourage sustainable cultivation. Proposed studies on the genetic aspects of WUE and related physiological traits would help in providing valid information for future alfalfa improvement program.
1.3.3 Diseases:The following diseases have been reported in the farmer’s field.
a). Crown rot and wilt: These severely attack the crop in the Southern plains (Salalah) where the crop succumbs to the diseases and becomes annual in nature. Waller and Bridge (1978) have recorded observations on the symptoms of the syndrome. The symptoms start with the wilting of the mature stems and girdling of the stems. The disease penetrates into the crown and results in the death of plant. Each cutting cycle experiences death of 10% of the plants and at the year end, the crop stand will be less than half of the original stand. The local sources indicated that the disease exists throughout the season. The disease would be severe during hot dry weather when frequent irrigations are provided. The causal organisms are suspected to be Melanospora zamiae L. and Fusarium salani L. as these were isolated from diseased crowns. However, disease could not be reproduced under laboratory conditions. It was concluded that disease could result from an interaction of pathogenic soil fungi with environmental factors.
b). Leaf spot caused by Stemphylium globiferum is very common in the Interior on old alfalfa stands causing as much as 30% damage.
c).Leaf rust caused by Uromyces striatus is common and locally severe in coastal areas, particularly on the young stands.
d).Downy mildew caused by Peronospora trifoli results in some yield losses.
e). Anthracnose on stems caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum is also observed on few stands.
f). Witches’ broom, a mycoplasma disease has been reported in the farmers field recently (Al-Rawahi et al., 1998) and observed to be very serious in causing loss to the extent of 25% of green matter yield. It is characterized by formation of excessive short and spindly shoots with small, rounded and often pale green leaves. After 3 or 4 cuttings, the crown fails to grow and die, leaving empty patches in the field.
g).Alfalfa mosaic virus was recorded in as many as 80% of the farms surveyed with 11-20% of disease incidence. The virus was found to be seed borne and hence disease incidence was higher in the fields where crop was planted with the seeds of infected plant stand (Anonymous, 1998).
Among the above diseases, the crown rot and wilt are very much endemic in Salalah plains and is of serious nature. Witches’ broom may emerge any time with surprise causing concern like the one noticed in Omani limes. Other diseases however, occur sporadically depending upon conditions viz. temperature, relative humidity etc.
1.3.4. Insect pests:
The following insect pests have been reported in the farmers’ field.
a). Spotted alfalfa aphids (Theriphis maculata): occurs in damaging numbers.
b). The potato leaf hopper (Empoasca fabae): causes stunting and yellowing.
c). Lygus bugs (Lygus spp.): cause serious damage to alfalfa seed production.
d). Grass hoppers and alfalfa caterpillar: occasionally cause damage to the green matter.
1.3.5. Nematodes:Omani alfalfa varieties like Qaryati, Batini and Interior were found to be completely resistant to Omani isolates of root knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and the variety Dhofari was slightly susceptible, although there are indications that Qaryati does support very few low populations of Meloidogyne javanica (Sutherland, 1976).
1.4. Mechanization:
It is believed that local alfalfa cultivars are not amenable for mechanization, as they are required to be cut at ground level for regeneration of the crown. 1.5. Agronomic Characters
In various agricultural systems, it is desirable to manipulate both height and tillering. Plant breeders have modified both apical dominance and plant height in the grass crops, but the genetic variability and behavioral details vary from crop to crop.
Ayers and Westcot (1976) conducted an investigation to identify the initial step in development of salinity-tolerant cultivars. They noticed that genetic variability for salinity tolerance could be identified within ecotypes of a species. They concluded that direct selection criteria could be based on growth or yield and provided important information for management decisions such as the salinity level where 50% growth reduction is expected.
Many researchers also reported that salt stress also results in a considerable decrease in the fresh and dry weights of leaves, stems, and roots (Hernandez et al., 1995; Ali Dinar et al., 1999; Chartzoulakis and Klapaki, 2000). It is now generally recognized that under the saline conditions the degree to which growth is reduced by salinity differs greatly with species and to a lesser extent with varieties within a species. The severity of salinity response is also mediated by environmental interactions, such as relative humidity, temperature, radiation and air pollution (Shannon et al., 1994).
1.5.1. Effects of salinity on physiologic parametersMultiple effects of salinity on plant physiology are related to enzyme activity, nutrient imbalance, membrane dysfunction, general metabolic processes, water relations and oxidative stress (Orcutt and Nilsen, 2000). Salinity stress drags out composite effects on plant mechanisms, which result in nutrient imbalance, water shortage and accumulation of toxic ions (Werner and Finkelstein, 1995). Many workers have investigat
How the African National Congress defined and understood the concept of apartheid.
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Professor:
Date:
How the African National Congress defined and understood the concept of apartheid.
Nelson Mandela is recognized worldwide for fighting for the freedom of South Africa from its colonizers. He spent twenty-seven years of jail for his role as a freedom fighter, but in the end, his country achieved independence. South Africa had experienced many years of apartheid, a period during which people were segregated and discriminated against based on race. The whites were considered superior, while the black people were oppressed and seen as inferior. The struggle for racial equality is still ongoing even today, not just in South Africa but also in many other countries. Many people still choose to define and judge others based on their skin color or their place of origin, which is quite unfortunate. Racial discrimination brings a lot of injustice, and South Africa is a perfect case. Nelson Mandela was part of the South African party, the African National Congress, which fought for the rights and freedoms of blacks in South Africa. During the Rivonia Trial, Mandela highlighted the negativity and injustices that apartheid brought, including inciting violence, death, racial inequality, and oppression.
As Mandela explained during the Rivonia trial, the ANC saw the concept of apartheid as a reinforcement of white supremacy. Apartheid meant that every aspect of a person’s life was based on their race. This included the schools attended, the neighborhoods they lived in, the people they interacted with, even whom they loved and married. Whites had their own spaces, and black people were not allowed to use the better resources allocated to the whites. This separation reinforced the idea that whites were superior to blacks. Mandela explained, “We were placed in a position in which we had to accept a permanent state of inferiority.” (Mandela 3) Apartheid forced blacks to become second-class citizens in their own country and embedded the idea that the white man was better than them in every way. The ANC had to fight against this idea.
The ANC also recognized that the concept of apartheid caused racial divisions in the country. As explained, every part of society was strictly defined by race, and the black population got the short end of the stick. They had it worse in every way, their schools, hospitals, neighborhoods, and other amenities were underfunded, derelict, and neglected. They couldn’t shop or eat in various high-end establishments reserved for the white population. Such a situation could only result in racial tensions and resentment between blacks and whites. The black people saw the whites as their oppressors, while the whites saw their black counterparts as second-class citizens who did not deserve a good life. Apartheid “would produce an intensity of bitterness and hostility between the various races of this country which is not produced even by war” (Mandela 5). Even before the civil war, people of different races already hated each other due to the racial ideas ingrained in society by apartheid.
During the Rivonia trial, Mandela explained that the ANC maintained a no-violence policy, but apartheid necessitated the use of violence. Mandela explained that the ANC fought for black people’s rights by peaceful means such as presenting their demands to the government. However, instead of responding to these demands, the government, which was made up of whites, remained unmoved and ignored them (Mandela 6). At this point, the peaceful means of advocating for blacks were no longer viable. The ANC formed the Umkhonto, which used other means to fight for the rights of blacks, which included violence and guerilla tactics where necessary. Although the ANC believed in peaceful advocacy, apartheid meant that black people had no representation in government; thus, they had no voice. Although Africans formed over 70% of South Africa’s population, they were not allowed to vote. Apartheid, therefore, necessitated violence as black South Africans fought to be heard.
The ANC understood the concept of apartheid as a means to rob black South Africans of their resources. During the trial, Mandela explained that the ANC was formed to “defend the rights of the African people which had been seriously curtailed by the South Africa Act, and which were then being threatened by the Native Land Act” (Mandela 8). Under this Act passed in 1913, more than 90% of productive land in the country was reserved for the white colonialists. The concept of apartheid would rob Africans of almost all their wealth and resources, leaving them in poverty and with no option but to serve the white colonialists. With such blatant efforts to subjugate the South African population, the ANC had no option but to step up and fight for the people’s rights. Unfortunately, the government made all forms of resistance, such as protests, illegal, making it impossible for the Africans to express themselves or negotiate with the government. It was clear that South Africans would soon be left with nothing under apartheid as they were seen as a lesser race than the white colonialists. Apartheid meant that black people did not deserve any useful and productive resources, especially land.
The ANC defined apartheid as a concept created to oppress the African population of South Africa and silence them completely. During his address at the Rivonia trial, Mandela quoted Chief Lutuli, who was the ANC president. Lutuli explained that “The past thirty years have seen the greatest number of laws restricting our rights and progress until today we have reached a stage where we have almost no rights at all” (Mandela 10). South Africans were not allowed to vote, and they had no way of negotiating with the government. They were not allowed to protest the oppressive government laws in any way. Many South Africans had been killed for voicing any opposition to the government or the white colonialists. Mandela listed multiple incidents between 1920 and 1960 where Africans were killed for protests. These protests were against various injustices such as carrying passes, pass raids and forced cattle culling. The law protected colonialists who could shoot and kill Africans with no repercussions. Separation along racial lines during apartheid was designed to oppress blacks, which the ANC did not stand for.
In summary, apartheid represents a painful part of South African history. During colonization, native South Africans were oppressed by the white colonialists, who were only a minority in the country. At first, the ANC tried to use peaceful means and negotiations to advocate for the rights of the blacks, but they were not heard. The ANC recognized that apartheid brought a lot of injustice such as oppression, racial inequality, violence, and death as people fought for their rights. Racial discrimination is something that many nations still grapple with. Minority groups have to fight for their rights, and at times this leads to violence as it did in the case of South Africa. Apartheid brought a lot of harm to South Africa by reinforcing the idea that one race was superior to another, and the country still has a lot of healing to do. Nelson Mandela worked hard to bring unity to the country, spending almost three decades in prison just so he could see his fellow South Africans free and equal to others. Every individual deserves the same levels of respect and dignity, regardless of race, religion, ethnicity, or any other characteristics.
Works Cited
Mandela, Nelson. “Statement from the Dock at the Rivonia Trial.” The Nelson Mandela Foundation Archive. 11 June 1964. archive.nelsonmandela.org/index.php/rivonia-trial-2
EVERY CHILD MATTERS AND FEMINIST THEORY
Social theory, social change in health and social care
TITLE:
EVERY CHILD MATTERS AND FEMINIST THEORY
Introduction:
The aim of this essay is to explore the background of Every child matters and its relationship and Applications to the physical abuse of children, relationship and application towards children services in context with social change, Critical analysis of legislative policies and changes in relation to Every Child Matters, Critical analysis of Every Child matter its aims, objectives and Applications of feminist theory on every child matter.
First of all this essay will highlight the emergence of Every child Matters in context with children abuse and will present a picture relating to the abuse and deaths of children, inquiry report that resulted Every Child Matters.
There are different kinds of physical abuse such as shaking, kicking and punching , also any pain or injury to a child is classified as an abuse. Any harmful substance such as alcohol or poison given by parents or carers that results in illness is also consider as an abuse.(NSPCC, 2009)
Neglect, physical injury, sexual abuse, emotional abuse and grave concern are five categories of child abuse.(Varma, 1997)
Wilson & James (2002) cited (Hallett & Birchall, 1992) that up until the mid1980s, the 30 plus inquires had all been linked with the deaths of children at the hands of their parents or carers. As a result of physical abuse or neglect all the children had died and had often suffered emotional abuse and failure to thrive. The child care professionals, especially social workers, failed to protect the children from terrible consequences. The deaths were viewed as particular instances and brought about some changes in the policy, practice, knowledge and skills and the way system operated and interrelated. (Wilson & James, 2002)
“It is difficult to predict the chances of family violence as some people in the family resort to violence inconsistently while others may do so consistently but only under extreme stress. However, studies on the causes of family violence have identified factors that are usually present when aggressive incidents and violent interactions occur”. (Brown & Herbert, 1997, pp.19-20)
Laming(2003) has described in his report Victoria as a black child born on the Ivory coast and given into the care of her auntie by her parents for better life in UK. In 1999 she arrived from Paris in the UK. First she stayed in Acton and later moved to Harlesden. By May 1999 there was evidence to suggest Victoria was already suffering from neglect. Within two months of arrival other people noticed injuries on Victoria. Later on one of her auntie friend rang social service twice. However, Victoria’s first visit to hospital occurred when she visited to the Middlesex central Hospital on the 14TH of July where she was seen for injuries which were later described to be non accidental. She was referred to a pediatric register who recorded that Victoria had numerous injuries, Brent Social services were informed and she was discharge; a week later she was taken back to the same hospital where she spent 13 nights in the pediatric ward. On her third visit to hospital on February25th 2000 Victoria was declared dead at the age of eight years and three months. (Laming, 2003)
Maguire (2009) says that Lord Laming was given great autonomy in shaping the nature of the inquiry and decided early on it should be public inquiry. However, the inquiry report was published in January 2003 and consisted of over 400 pages and made 108 recommendations for changes to the system for safeguarding children.(Maguire, 2009)
Wilson & James (2007) noted that The Green Paper was obviously a response to the Laming Report and basically was linked with inquiry report into death of Victoria Climbie as represented by the media. (Wilson & James, 2007)
Lonne et al (2009) says due to the tragic death of Victoria Climbie in London in 2000 policy and practice have been changed. (Lonne et al, 2009).
“The political momentum for the changes being introduced in England was considerably strengthened by the government being seen to be actively responding to the public inquiry into the death of Victoria Climbie, the government also took the opportunity to introduce wide-ranging and radical reform which was only tangentially concerned with responding to child abuse”.( Wilson & James ,2007:9)
Labour published a consultation paper, known in the UK as Green Paper, given the title ‘Every child matters’ (HM Government, 2003) in coincidence with the government’s response to the inquiry report into the death of Victoria Climbie, a young girl murdered after a prolonged period of abuse. The purpose of The Green Paper was based on four important facts increase focus on supporting families and carers who has the most crucial control on children’s lives, to make sure that essential intervention takes place before children reach crisis point and protecting children from falling into a victim, to deal with the original issues identified in the report into the death of Victoria Climbie such as weak responsibility and poor integration , to make sure that the people working with children are respected, better paid and skilled.(Dowler & Spencer, 2007)
Critical analysis of legislative policies and changes in relation to Every Child Matters:
This essay will look into the legislative policies and changes in child protection in the light of social change theory. For this purpose the essay will look into the history of changes in legislative policies in child protection in context with Every Child Matters.
Butler& Drakefield (2003) says that The 1989 Children Act brought together most of the law relating to child protection In England and Wales in a single piece of legislation (Butler& Drakefield, 2003)
Maguire (2009) says that children Act 1989 introduced the welfare and principles in improving and developing the child protection system. (Maguire, 2009)
Although, few main points of The Children Act 1989 makes clear that the child’s welfare should be the supreme reflection in all court proceedings. However, Safety of children is ongoing issue that makes the government to think, revise and improve policies and legislation such as improvement of children Act 1989. Safeguarding is a relatively new term which is broader than ‘child protection’ as it also includes prevention. (Safeguarding Children, 2009).
The 1989 Children Act has been seen as partly improved the position of children in society, due to the lack of sufficient resources for the services that deal with children to enable all its aims to be achieved, for example, continuing delays in court proceedings have undermined the meeting of children’s and families needs in many cases. As will be seen later, the 2004 Children Act has further developed legislation in respect of children, especially for their protection i.e. the safeguarding of their welfare (Barker, 2009)
Wilson & James (2007) cited (Thorpe 1994, DoH 1995a, Parton et al.1997) that during the early 1990s, a number of studies carried out in the UK, the USA and Australia, which showed that the child welfare agencies had been dealing with remarkable increases in allegations of child abuse and neglect. However, the publication research (DOH 1995 a) summarised 20 studies and recognized that despite the intentions of the children act 1989 there had been little progress in moving towards a more needs-led approach to safe guarding children.( Wilson & James ,2007)
Every Child Matters: Change for Children provides an information how the new Children Act 2004 forms the basis of a long-term changes and give details of the implications for various services. (DfES, 2003)
There is no similarity between the children Act 2004 and the children Act 1989, it only brings in the improvement in the legislation and policies many of them recommended by Lord Laming. (Beckett, 2007)
The Green Paper encouraged a general debate about services for children, young people and families. Following consultation with people working in children’s services, with parents and young people, as subsequent result the Government published Every Child Matters: Next steps (DfES, 2004a) and passed the 2004 Children Act. However, due to political delegation, there is a range of different policy, legal and guidance documents that communicate to the changing context in which services to children are delivered in the in the four countries of the UK. (Barker, 2009)
The Children Act 2004 is the legislative backbone for the reforms supporting and focus on safeguarding children, with statutory Local Safeguarding Children Boards replacing the current Area Child Protection Committees and impose a duty on all key agencies to safeguard and promote the welfare of children in partnership with Local Authorities working with other services through children’s trust arrangements to agree local priorities for improving services for children, young people and parents and imposes responsibility on Directors of Children’s Services Local Authorities appointing who will have responsibility for education and children’s social services and designating Lead Members (Councillors) to provide vision and momentum.(DfES,2003)
Critical analysis of Every Child matter its aims, objectives:
There is a long history in the UK for changes to services to children to be triggered in part by responses to the death of a child .However, The immediate catalyst of the introduction of ECM was the response to tragic death of Victoria Climbie in 2000 (Laming, 2003), although changes in service were being planned in any event so it is not entirely accurate to say that her death ’caused’ the ECM programme. (Barker, 2009:8)
ECM was published as a Green Paper (DfES, 2003) in conjunction with the Laming Report (Laming, 2003). The government suggested that ECM was built on existing plans to support preventative services. (DfES, 2003)
Two important factors for the Every Child Matters: Change for Children programme was the Victoria Climbie Inquiry and the Joint Chief Inspectors Report on Safeguarding Children. (DFES, 2004)
Staying safe, enjoy and achieve, make a positive contribution and to achieve economic well being is government four key points program for every child, regardless of their background or circumstances. However, organizations concerned with providing services for children, from hospitals and schools, to police and voluntary groups will be teaming up in latest ways of sharing information and working together, to protect children and young people from harm and help them achieve what they want in life. (DfES, 2004b)
Government in general started ECM programme and the main idea was that local needs should be met via ‘what works best’ locally. However, this idea means that different areas will be developing differently depending on local needs and local influences, such as the shifting impact and power of individuals and agencies in different areas. (Barker, 2009)
Every Child Matters: Change for Children sets out the national framework for local change program to build services around the needs of children and young people to make the most of chance and reduce risk. (DFES, 2004)
Barker & Hodes(2007) describes that it is vital that public sector workers in every service and within all agencies work together to make sure that the child is safeguarded, and the services for children and their families are well harmonized. Only possibility to protect children efficiently if all health service workers are dedicated to work jointly with other as a part of multi-agency as well as a multi disciplinary team. (Barker & Hodes, 2007)
Jowitt & O’Loughlin (2005) summarized that protection system failed for Victoria Climbie and other children in the past by many of safe guarding professionals agencies involved in working with her and her family. Furthermore, her death inquiry into her death and ors report from joint chief inspectors on safe guarding children (DOH, 2003b) made Government to change the 2004 Children Act and the Every Child Matters programmers. However, the important messages highlighted in these publications were protecting and promoting welfare of children. However, the centre of attention should only be a child and all agencies involved should work together. (Jowitt & O’Loughlin, 2005)
Basically ECM agenda was led by DfES but other department including DoH, DCMS and the Home Office were also involved. The main objective of ECM was to produce better joined up thinking and action between some of these departments, which thus has confused ECM agenda. However, there are clear indications that government has realized the importance of tackling this issue in a way by giving priority to children’s agenda and change as taken place by the reorganization of DfES into DCSF. (Barker, 2009)
A five-year programme entitled quality protect (April 1999 to March 2004) expected to improve the management and delivery of children’s social services, progress in increasing the number of adoptions. In addition, the Quality Protects programme developed a better perspective of the shared parenting role and to improve the collection and use of management information, and to make sure children and young people are better listened by councils. (DfES, 2004)
The agenda of improving services for children that is being progressed Via ECM programme is a challenging one and stresses on interagency, multi agency collaboration and multi professional approach when working in children services and it is very important for those who involved should have a clear idea about the roles of different professionals involved. (Barker, 2009)
The change required to beat the difficulties in prevention can only be delivered through local leaders working together in strong partnership with local communities on a programme of change. (DfES, 2004)
Barker(2009) cited (Hartley and Alison, 2006, p32) that ‘Innovation cannot be pre-specified and therefore part of the role of leadership is to provide a frame work and to observe , nurture, shape and reflect as well as to implement’.(Barker, 2009:193)
Practitioners use a shared assessment tool called The Common Assessment Framework (CAF) to develop a shared understanding of child needs. (DfES, 2006c)
Lonne et al(2009) notes that when the lic inquiry into the terrible death of Victoria Climbie was announced, at the same time new ‘Working Together’ and ‘Assessment Framework’ were being introduced.(Lonne et al , 2009)
ECM agenda has also introduced the role of lead professionals (LP) together with CAF for working with children , in order to enhance planned and effective interventions for the range of professionals and agencies concerned with the child’s life.(DCSF, 2007a)
Corby(2000) summaries that short-term assessment and decision making in child protection work indicates to a different approach being adopted depending on whether the subject inquiry is a case of physical or sexual abuse. However, short term assessment focuses on the parents and decision making on children. In the case of physical abuse and neglect, there is a little evidence of use of research findings in carrying out assessments, and some evidence to suggest that this is justified.(Corby, 2000).
Applications of feminist theory on every child matter:
This essay will highlight the application of feminist theory on Every Child Matters and will focus on different feminist theories and will relate one of the theories relating to ECM agenda.
Feminist is an important provider to critical practice theory because Feminist viewpoint on social wok spotlight on explaining and responding to the demoralized position of women in most societies due to men dominant societies. However, feminism has industrialized perceptions to explain inequalities between genders. In additition, various feminist theories such as liberal feminism, radical feminism, socialist or Marxist feminism, black feminism and postmodern feminism has developed view point to explain in equalities. (Payne, 2005)
Two systems theories entail a combination of Marxist-feminist and radical feminist ideas, identifying the effect of both capitalism and patriarch as tools of women’s subjugation. Most emphasis on a tendency to use a version of patriarchy rooted in marriage and the family, rather than in sexuality and violence.(Jones, 2003)
Payne (2005) cited Callahan (1996) focuses on the following:
Women experience of is a central aspect of understanding work with children, family and female role within them are crucial elements of child care, relationship need to be constructed to see the connection between private relationship, between spouses and between women and children , interact with definitions of what considered appropriate and then enforced in family relationship.(Payne, 2005)
Payne (2005) says that feminist theory had a most important effect in changing and thinking about roles of genders and relationships mainly relating to social policy and welfare services as applied to ECM agenda. However, it has contributed a dialogical practice and equal relations and group empowerment that have a significant impact on critical and empowerment practice. (Payne, 2005)
For many radical feminists the woman’s world is enclosed within the prospect of real or possible violence by men. (Jones, 2003)
Payne (2005) cited Domeinelli feminist social practice children and families as patriarchal families in which man is regarded as a leading partner and sees child welfare as positive and preventive, rather than protection, resulting in physical abuse to children and domestic violence to women as men are dominant figures.(Payne, 2005)
Patriarchy means the power of men over women and for radical feminist it is a system in which men oppress women. However, for radical feminists, patriarchy is the solution in understanding social structures and patriarchal relations are universal and fundamental.(Jones, 2003)
In practical theory is useful because it organizes and understands the variety and confusion and relationship and oppositions provide a context in which the can be assessed against one another and against the modern context in which they must be used. However, the question still exists which theory may be more effective in social work practice while working with children. (Payne, 2005)
Discussion:
This essay will critically discuss social policy, social change and social theory relating to ECM agenda.
Welfare and Well being of society can be improved via social policy and decides how support and care for disadvantaged people can be achieved. In addition, children can be educated, people can get free health care and the Government can take some measures to reduce poverty, homelessness and other social problems and inequalities.
(Kemshall, 2002)
The Victoria Climbie inquiry (Laming report 2003) clearly reveals how the failure to identify accurately a child in need of protection can have terrible consequences. This has resulted full frontal attack on the child protection system when what is needed is a strengthening of the preventative, legal and therapeutic options to support, rather than challenge or replace, and the child protection function .Furthermore, Child protection as we know it is no longer accepted term in central government guidance and the ensuing children act 2004 and working together guidance has resulted in No place for the established view of child protection, the language of safeguarding predominating, risk being deleted from social work vocabulary and No clear assessment structure existing to integrate the multiple structures in the existence. The number of new initiatives continuing in the absence of integration, evaluation or review(e.g. the Integrated Children system was introduced even before the Assessment Framework upon which it was built had been evaluated: similarly, the concept of children’s trusts was heralded post laming without any evolution of pilot projects. (Wilson & James, 2007)
‘More recently, uncritical acceptance of medical opinion by other professionals has been criticized in the cases of Victoria Climbie and Lauren Wright, whose deaths at the hands of their carers in London and Norfolk respectively were well publicized in the British media’. (Beckett, 2007:p12)
Three models of multi-agency working such as multi-agency panel, multi agency teams and integrated services, have been categorised in Every Child Matters: Change for Children (2007). In first model members are not permanently part of the panel, but identify with and remain employed by their home agencies. The panel has a chair or manager who is also employed by her home agency. The panel meets regularly. This model includes panels, networks and the ‘team around the child ’.In second model teams are permanent and has a team leader and a team identity. .This model includes teams such as Sure Start and behaviour support teams and in third model, the team is co-located, usually as part of a community-based service hub, providing interdisciplinary services to children and families. The team has a similar identity, viewpoint and objectives and is controlled as an interdisciplinary team. Examples of integrated services are family support services and children’s centre teams. Teams that now inhabit children’s services and which are continuing to develop. (DfES, 2007)
Bringing together of different services and shared decision-making have become important and most of the services in several key areas of multi professional work have arisen out of professional developments such as in hospital care, primary health care, social services, community social work, mental health community care and residential care. (Payne, 2000)
In sharp contrast to previous UK governments, the current administration has made women and children a key focus of policy. It has committed considerable resources to this policy agenda. However, there remains much to do if inequalities can be reduced and resources can be used effectively challenged and reduced. reduction of child poverty – a need to increase benefits and the minimum wage, probably by increasing social transfers; further improvement of parental leave provision to the best European levels; reduction in unwanted pregnancies, particularly in young and vulnerable women; improvement of maternal health, in particular promoting nutrition and reducing smoking and substance misuse; provision of affordable childcare for all parents including those on low (or no) incomes and promotion of family-friendly working practices and employment; provision of universal high-quality services such as those being developed through Sure Start, with targeting of increased resources to disadvantaged areas; simplification of child and family service provision by organisational change such as that proposed in Every child matters. Moreover, these changes should be underpinned by sufficient, continued and dedicated financial and other resources, international comparative research, with the aim of identifying key welfare, social and fiscal policies associated with better child health and well-being and reduction of inequalities.(Dowler et al, 2007)
Social changes can be promoted by social work profession, problem can be solved in human relationships and the empowerment and liberation of people can be enhanced. . By using theories of human behaviors and social system, social work intervenes at points where people interact with their environments. Principles of human rights and social justice are fundamental to social work. (IFSW, 2007)
Services for children can only be improved by better and more effective and joined up working and multi agency and inter professional working for both universal and targeted, specialist service for children.(Barker,2009:13)
Conclusions:
Deaths of helpless children have driven a essential agenda to improve child protection services in the UK. There is still an apprehension that these changes will not be enough to protect children due to great lack of staff and resources, mainly in social services child protection. To get better results from ECM agenda and to fill in the gaps and to overcome shortcomings in children services, there is a need of more high quality staff into children workforce, needs to strengthen inter agency and multidisciplinary working and promotion of stronger leadership and management that will result a great change in services for children. There is a need of spreading the awareness of child protection in order to promote community awareness and involve the wider society. However, in a society which still allows the corporal punishment of children and in which large number of children and families live in poverty
Finally, child protection system is disciplinary to anyone involved. It is difficult to establish a system that can completely control violence against children and sometimes make it uncertain and complicated in protecting a child. For the protection of children Via ECM agenda it is significant that there should be a proper assessment of the risk and a good collaboration between all the agencies concerned in decision making to eliminate the risks around the children.