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Aircraft accident
Aircraft accident
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Institutional affiliation:
Date:
Aircraft accident
The discovery of aircrafts remains one of the major achievements in the history. They are fast, efficient and comfortable in service delivery. Despite the successful launch and use, aircraft use has remained in the sport light due to accidents. Aircraft related accidents are fatal and lead to loss of lives. It, therefore, is important to take a keen interest and review accidents to avoid future problems. Notably, the accidents arise from technical problems, human error or environment related factors. Accidents are inevitable; however, based on crash investigations they are avoidable. Despite the many weather related elements that contribute to accidents, the paper focuses on ice.
A challenger 604 is an N90 AG Epps Air Service airplane, which lost control and crashed at Birmingham, UK on takeoff due to airframe icing. Arguably, the pilots discovered the presence of frost on the tip of the wings but failed to request for de-icing. At the time of the accident, wind was 150 degrees/6 kt with a visibility of 8000 metres (Skybrary, 2013, p. 01). Cloud scattered over 700 feet agl with a braking of 800 feet agl and a dew point of minus 3 degrees. Conceivably, the crew conducted control checks arriving at flap 20 for takeoff. The aircraft was cleared to take off at a wind speed of 140 degrees per 8 kt with a rotation of 146 kt. This elevated the plane to a position of 8 degrees with an initial pitch rate of 4 degrees per second. Lift off occurred 2 second later with a bank off rate of 50 degrees. With increased lift off stick shaker operation started after 3.5 seconds resulting into a crash approximately 111 degrees on the left bank.
Occurrence of ice of airplanes happens in two ways either on the ground or during the flight. At airports, companies have no protective mechanisms to protect planes from ice especially in winter countries. On the ground during rain seasons, precipitation falls on the air planes and freezes on the upper sides. This is the same phenomenon experienced for a car left outside during the rainy season (Borrell, 2009, p. 01). Evidently, ice on the upper side of the plane should be removed through de-icing using propylene glycol by the airport management. During flight, ice is developed when aircrafts fly through clouds made of small liquid droplets. The problem can be reduced by keeping flight below 32 degrees Fahrenheit.
Evidently, it is the role of NASA, which is an icing research program to predict ice growth and advice planes on the right course to take. Ice reduces wing stall angle arising from surface roughness. It re-shapes the plane, producing a new shape hence leading to more drag than the expected lift. Evidently, the amount of lift any wing initiates depend on the relative angle in the airfoil. Therefore, as planes increase the angle of attack more lift is generated, but less wind flows on the upper sides. Ice reduces lift by 30 percents and in limited cases stretching up to 40 percent (Borrell, 2009, p. 01). Instead of relieving elevation, ice increases the weight of aircraft, which fails to meet applied thrust. The wing plays a significant role during flight, it is important for balance and ultimate takeoff. Ice, therefore, increases aerodynamic stall. As a result, frost contamination occurs limiting stall protection of the plane.
Icing generates false instrument readings, which miss-advice pilots hence compromising control. For instance, it affects the reversible control systems hence failing to manifest reactions any time that pilot make various decisions. Subsequently, ice limit engine air intake, this results into impairment of engine performance, thus exposing people to more danger. Arguably, any effect on the engines reduces it power and the ability to take off and conduct other functions. Notably, many aircrafts are not equipped with ice protection equipments but instead relies on external effort to counter icing conditions. On the other hand, flights rely on the expert judgment of pilots to determine ice conditions. In many cases, visible judgment fails to meet the threshold of safety hence leading to aircraft fatalities.
Undeniably, aircrafts rely on wings and tail to maintain balance and apply thrust. The propeller driven planes also have their power devices located on the wings a factor, which further complicates weather related problems (Borrell, 2009, p. 01). Instead of concentrating on protection, air plane manufacturers have failed to establish various mechanisms of de-icing planes with a limited margin of error. Consequently, they have failed to develop engines with a high climbing power with a relatively high load. It, therefore, is evident that flight planning is necessary to avail ice protection systems while at the same time limiting operations in icing conditions. In addition, approach and landing procedures should be revised to accommodate the abnormal effects generated by ice conditions during flights. This is a primary step towards limiting aviations accidents; however, manufacturers would be at the helm of making discoveries to ensure performance remain at it maximum. Accident and incident investigation bodies such as the National Transport Safety Board should conduct comprehensive investigations and provide achievable recommendations.
References
Borrell, B. (2009). How does ice cause a plane to crash? Scientific American. Retrieved on 19th April 2014, from HYPERLINK “http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ice-flight-3407/” http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/ice-flight-3407/
Skybrary (2013) CL60, Birmingham UK, 2002 (GND LOC HF FIRE). Retrieved on 19th April 2014, from http://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/CL60,_Birmingham_UK,_2002_%28GND_LOC_HF_FIRE%29
Air Traffic Management Air Quality around Airports
Air Traffic Management: Air Quality around Airports
Name:
Institution:
Air Traffic Management: Air Quality around Airports
Air traffic management (ATM) encompasses all systems that assist aircrafts in taking off from airspace transit, and landing, including all aspects of aeronautical meteorology, controlling of air traffic, as well as air navigation systems. ATM continuously faces challenges in managing the increasing client demands for air transportation. Particularly, providers of air navigation services have the mandate of improving pertinent air control issues, enhancing safety of both workers and clients, as well as ensuring efficiency at reduced environmental costs. Air pollution has been associated with diverse health concerns as well as climate conservation challenges, making it an area of great importance in the management of air quality. It is therefore imperative that all relevant stakeholders including air transport leaders, manufacturers, as well as governments and governing bodies come up with mechanisms, including legislations, to ensure that air service providers focus on utilizing positive management practices for environmental conservation. Various pollutants, caused by aviation practices, affect the quality of air around airports posing a real health problem.
Overview of the Problem
Many aircrafts are designed to combust their fuel efficiently with very low emissions of smoke or non-combusted discharges. Most manufacturers fit aircraft engines with turboprop and turbofan to increase efficiency in fuel combustion (Thales, 2014). Despite all these improvements, the increase in air travel demand has overstretched the air transport industry with increased travel, making the realization of pollutant free airport environments a great challenge. Moreover, aircraft movements while on the ground, during landing and taking off, produce significant pollutant emissions, which affect the quality of air around airports (Thales, 2014). Road traffic, other machinery, such as forklifts, cranes, and other mechanical operations around the airport culminate into emission of high concentrations of harmful particulate matter and gases. This poses a health risk to communities living around the airport, including personnel and travellers. Moreover, this creates a significant threat to the surrounding natural environment and negatively affects the quality of air.
Some emissions, for example from combustion of jet fuel have been associated with negative health impacts, such as nasal, throat, larynx, lung, and brain cancers (Mark J. & Mark W., 2000). Besides, emissions from aircrafts have a close association with the development of diverse infections that contribute to asthma, leukemia, lymphoma, and birth defects. This culminated into the European Commission proposing to bring air transport activities into EU Emissions trading Scheme in a bid to combat diverse climatic changes resulting from aircraft emissions (Keane, 2012). According to the commission, greenhouse emissions from the aviation industry increased by nearly eighty seven percent in the European Union alone, in the period between 1990 and 2006 (Keane, 2012). In fact, the commission proposed the taxation of air travel associated with emissions to ensure that total external aviation costs are taken into consideration.
Pollutants in the Environment Caused by Aviation
Of greatest concern is the emission of nitrogen dioxide around airport environments. Sources indicate this gas is the main environmental pollutant emission threat that has changed the global climate on an alarming scale (Owen et al., 2010). Usually, the emission of nitrogen dioxide follows increased ground activity by aircrafts, surface traffic, as well as other machinery operations within the airport. These produce nitrogen oxide, the precursor of nitrogen dioxide. In the lower atmosphere environment, nitrogen oxide contributes to ozone production. In the lower atmosphere, ozone is an important pollutant that greatly contributes to diverse unfavorable climates and global warming concerns. High altitude supersonic aircrafts produce nitrogen oxides that have been linked to the damage of the protective stratospheric ozone layer, which helps in the filtration of harmful solar radiations (Environmental Protection UK, 2012; Rojo, 2007).
Jet emissions contain particulate matter that affects the environment. According to studies, combustion of jet fuels culminates into the release of benzpyrene as a byproduct of incomplete combustion that normally comes out with soot (Rojo, 2007). This chemical is highly carcinogenic and has been shown to be a causative agent of many cancers as well as tumors in human beings culminating from skin and lung adsorptions. Besides, combustion of jet fuel has been associated with the production of high amounts of sulphur dioxide, a harmful gas that can cause severe irritation of the eyes and airway tracts. Literature indicates that jet fuel contains high concentrations of sulphur, nearly 1000ppm as compared to 10ppm in diesel (Mark J. & Mark W., 2000). During combustion, this is converted into the harmful sulphur dioxide, which is transmitted into the atmosphere thereby compromising quality of air.
Other harmful emissions include volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and carbon dioxide. VOCs can include, for example benzene, which is carcinogenic, and some forms of aldehydes that can cause forms of skin, eyes, and air tract irritation (Mark J. & Mark W., 2000). Volatile organic substances usually originate from vaporized fuel or incompletely combusted material that exits as exhaust gas. In some instances, the volatile compounds attach to particulate materials and escape into the air, culminating into compromised air quality around the airport. Carbon dioxide emanates from the combustion of organic fuels. It is a major contributor to climatic deterioration and global warming.
Sources indicate that this chemical is produced in large quantities from aircraft activities in the United States and other highly developed airports that have a lot of jet activity (Rojo, 2007). The resulting emissions find their way into the environment, adversely affecting the quality of air. This readily predisposes the populations living around airports, air travel personnel, and travellers, to dangerous environmental and health concerns. According to the Danish Ecocouncil (2012), jet emissions usually affect a radius of twenty-five miles around the airport area. This implies that communities, animals, and crop plants are dusted with toxic jet emissions within a distance of twenty-five miles away from the airport every day. Typically, airports spew toxic pollutants in hundreds of tons annually all over the world. Flow of air currents ensures that the toxic pollutants also reach water bodies where they negatively affect marine life.
Addressing Air Pollution resulting from Aviation
The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is mandated with the setting up of international standards that govern the emission of certain pollutant gases and smoke for new aircraft engines. That notwithstanding, only minimal improvements have occurred in the aviation industry in the reduction of harmful gases and emissions, as compared to other sectors that also use fuel (ICAO, 2014). Consequently, there is a need for more proactive approaches to mitigate the problem. For example, the adoption of better engine types that encompasses selective catalyst reduction mechanisms and the recirculation of exhaust gas to ensure maximum combustion. Most gaseous and vapor emissions have been associated with incomplete combustion of fuels (Environmental Protection UK, 2012).
Therefore, increasing the number of recirculation cycles will ensure complete combustion and a reduced amount of harmful emissions.
It is also important to develop proactive policies that are consistent with specific concerns associated with air quality and environmental conservation similar to related approaches in other industries, such as automobile. Currently, policies governing aircraft activities and environmental concerns are less stringent than those that govern other sectors of the economy involved with fuel combustion, such as factories and the automobile industry (Kularatna & Sudantha, 2008). This could be partly because most pollution by aircrafts takes place in the higher atmosphere compared to automobiles and other engine activities on the earth’s surface. Integrating related aviation policies with those of the transport industry will achieve a common approach to environmental conservation.
Stakeholders, governments, and aircraft manufacturers should also review, develop, and adopt better aircraft technologies on a continuous basis to reduce the extent of air pollution and environmental concerns. In addition, plans should be in place to cater for expansion activities to reduce the overstretching of existing limited resources with increase in air travel demand.
Conclusion
Various pollutants caused by aviation practices affect the quality of air around airports posing a real health problem. Aircraft movements while on the ground, during landing and taking off, produce significant pollutant emissions, which affect the quality of air around airports. Besides, road traffic, other machinery, such as forklifts, cranes, and others, are also significant sources of air pollutants around the airport, posing a health risk to surrounding communities, air travel personnel, and travellers. Nitrogen dioxide, benzpyrene, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and volatile organic compounds are examples of harmful environmental pollutants caused by aviation. It is important to establish positive mitigation policies by all stakeholders, governments, and aircraft manufacturers to come up with proactive approaches aimed at air pollution reduction around airports.
References
Environmental Protection UK. (2012). Aviation pollution. Retrieved from: www.environmental-protection.org.uk/committees/air-quality/air-pollution-and-transport/aviation-pollution/
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). (2014). ICAO Strategic Objectives 2014-2016. Retrieved from: www.icao.int/about-icao/Pages/Strategic-Objectives.aspx
Keane, J. (2012). The aviation industry, the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme and Small and Vulnerable Economies: development-friendly frameworks. ODI Project Briefings 76. Retrieved from: www.odi.org.uk/publications/6749-aviation-industry-eu-development-friendly-emissions-trading-scheme
Kularatna, N., & Sudantha, B.H. (2008). An Environmental Air Pollution Monitoring System Based on the IEEE 1451 Standard. Sensors Journal, 8(4), 415-422.
Mark J. U., & Mark W. F. (2000). Acute health effects of ambient air pollution: The ultrafine particle hypothesis. Journal of Aerosol Medicine, 13(4): 355-359.
Owen, B., Lee, D.S., & Lim L. (2010). Flying into the Future: Aviation Emissions Scenarios to 2050 . Environmental Science & Technology 44(7), 2255-2260.
Rojo, J. (2007). Future trends in local air quality impacts of aviation. Retrieved from: dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/39707
Thales. (2014). Air traffic management. Retrieved from: https://www.thalesgroup.com/en/worldwide/aerospace/air-traffic-management.
The Danish Ecocouncil. (2012). Air pollution in Airports: Ultrafine particles, solutions and successful cooperation. Retrieved from: www.ecocouncil.dk
Evaluation Of Methods And Introduction Of Complementary Research Devices To Improve Research Robustness
Evaluation Of Methods And Introduction Of Complementary Research Devices To Improve Research Robustness
Abstract
According to Kisfalvi (2003), Entrepreneurship has been conceptualized in a number of ways in literature, common ground has still not been found. Social scientists have embarked to study effects and reasons of entrepreneurial actions to find the essence of entrepreneurship, (Kisfalvi, 2003). Research on ‘true’ entrepreneurial behavior is scarce though, researchers agree that investigating this field could help solidify entrepreneurship theory, its delimitation from management and lay groundwork for studies on entrepreneurial efficacy and competence.
Referring to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Edmondson</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>809</RecNum><record><rec-number>809</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>809</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Edmondson, Amy C.</author><author>McManus, Stacy E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>METHODOLOGICAL FIT IN MANAGEMENT FIELD RESEARCH</title><secondary-title>Academy of Management Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Academy of Management Review</full-title></periodical><pages>1155-1179</pages><volume>32</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT literature</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT</keyword><keyword>QUALITY control</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>EXPERIMENTAL design</keyword><keyword>DATA analysis</keyword><keyword>METHODOLOGY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><publisher>Academy of Management</publisher><isbn>03637425</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=26586086&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>Edmondson & McManus (2007), this paper provides that a research design based on field methods, in meticulous methods of observation, can be used to study and consequently code and evaluate behavioral scenario in entrepreneurship. A method to studying managerial behavior postulated by Henry Mintzberg’s (1968) proves a valuable starting point, however, an evaluation of the method based on Yin (1998) and ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gibbert</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>821</RecNum><record><rec-number>821</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>821</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gibbert, M. </author><author>Ruigrok, W.</author><author>Wicki, B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>What passes as a rigorous case study?</title><secondary-title>Strategic Management Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strategic Management Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>1465-1474</pages><volume>29</volume><number>13</number><dates><year>2008</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>Gibbert et al. (2008) shows apparent lack of rigor in his proceeding. Consequently, the research design is updated and remedies as well as complimentary methods are introduced. These measures are integrated into a research approach which enables the generation of reliable and valid data on entrepreneurial behavior.
Table of Contents TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733400” Table of Contents PAGEREF _Toc229733400 h ii
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733401” List of Abbreviations PAGEREF _Toc229733401 h iii
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733402” 1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc229733402 h 1
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733403” 2Conceptual foundations PAGEREF _Toc229733403 h 3
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733404” 2.1The job of the entrepreneur as research focus PAGEREF _Toc229733404 h 3
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733405” 2.2Methodological fit of systematic observation in entrepreneurial settings PAGEREF _Toc229733405 h 4
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733406” 2.3Key concepts of scientific observation PAGEREF _Toc229733406 h 6
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733407” 2.4Using observation to generate data PAGEREF _Toc229733407 h 7
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733408” 3Evaluation of Mintzberg’s observation approach PAGEREF _Toc229733408 h 8
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733409” 3.1Internal validity PAGEREF _Toc229733409 h 8
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733410” 3.2Construct validity PAGEREF _Toc229733410 h 9
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733411” 3.3External validity PAGEREF _Toc229733411 h 10
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733412” 3.4Reliability PAGEREF _Toc229733412 h 10
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733413” 3.5Attainments of Mintzberg’s work PAGEREF _Toc229733413 h 11
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733414” 4Measures to improve rigor of systematic observation PAGEREF _Toc229733414 h 12
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733415” 4.1Clear definitions, epistemological foundations as well as pattern matching to improve internal validity PAGEREF _Toc229733415 h 12
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733416” 4.2Social learning theory as theoretical foundation for the research approach PAGEREF _Toc229733416 h 13
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733417” 4.3Multi-rater methods, in particular Delphi processes to code behaviour PAGEREF _Toc229733417 h 14
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733418” 4.4Methodological triangulation to enhance construct validity PAGEREF _Toc229733418 h 15
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733419” 4.5Larger sample size and clear rationale for case selection to enhance external validity PAGEREF _Toc229733419 h 16
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733420” 4.6Comprehensive and comprehensible documentation to improve reliability PAGEREF _Toc229733420 h 17
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733421” 4.7Overview of approach to studying entrepreneurial behaviour with systematic observation PAGEREF _Toc229733421 h 17
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733422” 5Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc229733422 h 18
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733423” 5.1Summary PAGEREF _Toc229733423 h 18
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733424” 5.2Directions for future research PAGEREF _Toc229733424 h 19
HYPERLINK l “_Toc229733425” References PAGEREF _Toc229733425 h 20
List of AbbreviationsAbbreviationFull term
e.g.exempli gratia (for example)
et al.et alteri (and others)
i.e.id est (that means)
p.page
pp.pages
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to analyze, evaluate and improve methodological rigor of field research for deployment in entrepreneurial settings. According to Edmondson and McManus (2007), Field research is defined as “systematic studies that rely on the collection of original data in real organizations” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Edmondson</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>809</RecNum><Pages>1155</Pages><record><rec-number>809</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>809</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Edmondson, Amy C.</author><author>McManus, Stacy E.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>METHODOLOGICAL FIT IN MANAGEMENT FIELD RESEARCH</title><secondary-title>Academy of Management Review</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Academy of Management Review</full-title></periodical><pages>1155-1179</pages><volume>32</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT literature</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT</keyword><keyword>QUALITY control</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>EXPERIMENTAL design</keyword><keyword>DATA analysis</keyword><keyword>METHODOLOGY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2007</year></dates><publisher>Academy of Management</publisher><isbn>03637425</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=26586086&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Edmondson & McManus, 2007). This paper mainly focuses on systematic observation techniques as well as complimentary research devices to gather original data and a scientific process to generate activity categories. These methods fit the study of a research gap in entrepreneurship particularly well (see Section 2.2). Systematic observation has been used to explore and analyse a variety of subject matters, such as educational, healthcare and military institutions as well as political and economic actors (Sulsky & Kline, 2007; Yukl, 2005).
Henry Mintzberg pioneered the deployment of direct systematic observation in his seminal PhD thesis on managerial behaviour “The manager at work – determining his activities, roles and programs by structured observation” ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Mintzberg</Author><Year>1968</Year><RecNum>721</RecNum><record><rec-number>721</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>721</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Thesis”>32</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Mintzberg, Henry</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>The Manager at Work – Determinig his Activities, Roles, And Programs by Structured Observation</title></titles><dates><year>1968</year></dates><pub-location>Boston</pub-location><publisher>Massachusetts Institute of Technology</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Mintzberg, 1968). Since then, researchers have repeatedly relied upon systematic observation as a method to study and understand managerial behaviour ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Kotter, 1982; Kurke & Aldrich, 1983; Luthans, 1987; S. Tengblad, 2001a). ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Gartner, 1989; Schwehm, 2007 , argue that entrepreneurship is a young discipline whose actual activities, tasks and behaviours of entrepreneurs have not yet been studied comprehensively, leaving a research gap which could be addressed by systematical analysis of data from systematic observation ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Gartner, 1989; Schwehm, 2007).
The incorporation of typical advantages of case study research, like the coverage of events in their natural context, in real time, and the generation of detailed, voluminous evidence (Yin, 1998) have not saved the situation because still observation approaches have been criticized for several reasons in the literature. ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Hales, 1986; Martinko & Gardner, 1985 denotes that limitations of observant research relate normally to problems of validity, lack of reliability checks, subjective coding methodology and a number of other conceptual problems ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Brown & Hanlon, 2004; Hales, 1986; Martinko & Gardner, 1985). The underlying research question for this chiefly methodological paper is thus:
R: How can we address the limitations of observational field research while preserving its methodological advantages?
To answer this question in the context of management and entrepreneurship, three main objectives subside. First, direct, systematic observation has been widely used to study managers but not to study entrepreneurs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Brown</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>817</RecNum><record><rec-number>817</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>817</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Brown, Travor C.</author><author>Hanlon, Dennis</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>U Newfoundland</auth-address><titles><title>Developing Behavioural Observation Scales to Foster Effective Entrepreneurship</title><secondary-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</full-title></periodical><pages>103-116</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>Human Capital</keyword><keyword>Skills</keyword><keyword>Occupational Choice</keyword><keyword>Labor Productivity J240</keyword><keyword>Firm Performance L250</keyword><keyword>New Firms</keyword><keyword>Startups M130</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Winter</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>08276331</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ccsbe.org/jsbe/</url><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ecn&AN=0743863&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Brown & Hanlon, 2004). therefore, identification and address of the methodological issues in the scientific observation of managers can bring about research designs which, could make valid and reveal significant aspects of administrative or entrepreneurial behaviour ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>731</RecNum><record><rec-number>731</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>731</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>"Who Is an Entrepreneur?" Is the Wrong Question</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>47-68</pages><volume>13</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESSMEN</keyword><keyword>ORGANIZATION</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>PSYCHOLOGY</keyword><keyword>PERSONALITY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1989</year><pub-dates><date>Summer89</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=5331834&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Schwehm</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>850</RecNum><record><rec-number>850</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>850</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Book”>6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schwehm, M. O. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Entrepreneurship im internationalen Vergleich: Erfassung, Beobachtung und Erklärung</title></titles><dates><year>2007</year></dates><pub-location>Marburg</pub-location><publisher>Books on Demand GmbH</publisher><urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Gartner, 1989; Schwehm, 2007). Second, this paper aims at enhancing rigor of direct behaviour observation and behaviour coding approaches by methodically identifying weaknesses and strengths to consequently put in place measures to improve and advance the methodology for future fruitful use in the social sciences. Third, a gradual research framework shall be devised which can be applied in bridging a concrete research gap in entrepreneurial setting basing on the evaluation and development of systematic observation methods.
After the introduction, Section II will lay the foundation for the remainder of the paper. To substantiate the identified research gap, current issues in entrepreneurship theory will be reviewed briefly. Thereafter, methodological fit of an approach, in particular systematic observation and subsequent activity coding procedures to address the research gap shall be assessed. Finally, observation approaches as deployed in field research in management will be introduced as scientific methodologies. Subsequent to the fundamental groundwork laid out in Section II, Section III will evaluate the rigor of studies relying on structured observation by deploying Yin’s (1994) and Gibbert et al.’s (2008) suggested validity and reliability criteria. The analysis shall exemplarily focus on Mintzberg’s 1973 case studies on managerial behaviour, since they incorporate common weaknesses but also strengths of systematic observation and behavioural coding ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Brown</Author><Year>2004</Year><RecNum>817</RecNum><record><rec-number>817</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>817</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Brown, Travor C.</author><author>Hanlon, Dennis</author></authors></contributors><auth-address>U Newfoundland</auth-address><titles><title>Developing Behavioural Observation Scales to Foster Effective Entrepreneurship</title><secondary-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship</full-title></periodical><pages>103-116</pages><volume>17</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>Human Capital</keyword><keyword>Skills</keyword><keyword>Occupational Choice</keyword><keyword>Labor Productivity J240</keyword><keyword>Firm Performance L250</keyword><keyword>New Firms</keyword><keyword>Startups M130</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2004</year><pub-dates><date>Winter</date></pub-dates></dates><isbn>08276331</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://www.ccsbe.org/jsbe/</url><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ecn&AN=0743863&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Brown & Hanlon, 2004). Based on identified methodological and conceptual shortcomings, Section IV will suggest incremental remedies and complementary research devices to advance research designs featuring observation as a method to generate valid and reliable data on entrepreneurial behaviour for research and practice. Section V concludes the paper by providing a summary as well as directions for future research.
Conceptual foundationsThe job of the entrepreneur as research focusEntrepreneurship, although being a relatively young discipline, has been conceptualized in a number of different ways over the last decades ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>2008</Year><RecNum>724</RecNum><record><rec-number>724</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>724</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Entrepreneurship Hop</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>361-368</pages><volume>32</volume><number>2</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>NEW business enterprises</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>STUDY & teaching</keyword><keyword>RHYMING slang</keyword><keyword>HIP-hop — Influence</keyword><keyword>RAP (Music) — Social aspects</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2008</year></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00230.x</url><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=30033421&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Gartner, 2008). More recently, its definition in literature has been predominantly processual: According to Fueglistaller et al. (2008) Entrepreneurship is a process which is initiated and executed by individuals to identify, evaluate and exploit opportunities. The entrepreneur is hence an individual performing these processes, succeeding with new products or production methods in the market and establishing new economic structures ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Blanchflower & Oswald, 1998; Gartner et al., 1994) .
However, academic discourse about the terms and concepts entrepreneurship and entrepreneur has not settled ADDIN EN.CITE ADDIN EN.CITE.DATA (Fueglistaller et al., 2008; Gartner, 2001, 2008; Schwehm, 2007). as a result, researchers have embarked in a variety of directions to explain and conceptualize entrepreneurship phenomena, which can be summarized under the following three questions ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Stevenson</Author><Year>1990</Year><RecNum>823</RecNum><record><rec-number>823</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>823</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Stevenson, Howard H.</author><author>Jarillo, J. Carlos</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>A PARADIGM OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP: ENTREPRENEURIAL MANAGEMENT</title><secondary-title>Strategic Management Journal</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Strategic Management Journal</full-title></periodical><pages>17-27</pages><volume>11</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS literature</keyword><keyword>STRATEGIC planning</keyword><keyword>NEW business enterprises</keyword><keyword>INDUSTRIAL management</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT science</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS planning</keyword><keyword>MANAGEMENT — Research</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1990</year></dates><isbn>01432095</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=12496733&loginpage=login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Stevenson & Jarillo, 1990)
What happens when entrepreneurs act? (Results of entrepreneurial action)
Why do entrepreneurs act? (Predispositions of entrepreneurial action)
How do entrepreneurs act? (Behaviours / actions of entrepreneurs)
According to ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Timmons</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>3</RecNum><record><rec-number>3</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>3</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Timmons, Jeffrey A.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>New Venture Creation – Entrepreneurship for the 21st Century</title></titles><keywords><keyword>1080 Ent – Manage start-ups</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>731</RecNum><record><rec-number>731</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>731</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>"Who Is an Entrepreneur?" Is the Wrong Question</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>47-68</pages><volume>13</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESSMEN</keyword><keyword>ORGANIZATION</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>PSYCHOLOGY</keyword><keyword>PERSONALITY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1989</year><pub-dates><date>Summer89</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=5331834&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote> Gartner, (1989); Timmons, (2002) the first two questions are investigated in the disciplines of economics and psychology / sociology respectively. While The third question, is best to be examined in the field of business management research ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Timmons</Author><Year>2002</Year><RecNum>3</RecNum><record><rec-number>3</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>3</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Timmons, Jeffrey A.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>New Venture Creation – Entrepreneurship for the 21st Century</title></titles><keywords><keyword>1080 Ent – Manage start-ups</keyword></keywords><dates><year>2002</year></dates><urls></urls></record></Cite><Cite><Author>Gartner</Author><Year>1989</Year><RecNum>731</RecNum><record><rec-number>731</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>731</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Journal Article”>17</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Gartner, William B.</author></authors></contributors><titles><title>"Who Is an Entrepreneur?" Is the Wrong Question</title><secondary-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</secondary-title></titles><periodical><full-title>Entrepreneurship: Theory & Practice</full-title></periodical><pages>47-68</pages><volume>13</volume><number>4</number><keywords><keyword>ENTREPRENEURSHIP</keyword><keyword>BUSINESSMEN</keyword><keyword>ORGANIZATION</keyword><keyword>BUSINESS</keyword><keyword>RESEARCH</keyword><keyword>PSYCHOLOGY</keyword><keyword>PERSONALITY</keyword></keywords><dates><year>1989</year><pub-dates><date>Summer89</date></pub-dates></dates><publisher>Blackwell Publishing Limited</publisher><isbn>10422587</isbn><urls><related-urls><url>http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=buh&AN=5331834&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live</url></related-urls></urls></record></Cite></EndNote>(Gartner, 1989; Timmons, 2002). Stevenson and Jarillo (1990) suggest that management researcher should put into consideration what entrepreneurs do behaviourally and how they succeed as entrepreneurs. little has been published on this topic to this day despite almost 20 years having passed, recent research by Schwehm (2007) still claim for a focus on direct contemplation of entrepreneurs ADDIN EN.CITE <EndNote><Cite><Author>Schwehm</Author><Year>2007</Year><RecNum>850</RecNum><record><rec-number>850</rec-number><foreign-keys><key app=”EN” db-id=”0azr0ttfyztxvuevse659fwe5dsvddazpf0v”>850</key></foreign-keys><ref-type name=”Book”>6</ref-type><contributors><authors><author>Schwehm, M. O. </author></authors></contributors><titles><title>Entrepreneurship im internationale