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Evaluation of Meta-analysis
Meta-analysis
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date Executive summary
Although the advantages of using meta-analysis seem obvious, critics have been raised. The critics entail the possibility of introducing bias into sampling findings and placing emphasis on personal effects. There are various disadvantages associated with meta-analysis as witnessed in this research. This paper analyses a meta-analysis of Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Outcomes. It evaluates the Effects of Research-Specific Procedures.
The first weakness of DeCoster (2009) paper analysis is personal bias in choosing and including existing studies in the analysis. In the DeCoster (2009), there is no database that includes all empirical studies on the topic of interest. It is also true that not every computer assisted search can identify all journal articles on the chosen topic. Many good studies are not available simply because they were never published. There might be a publication bias; to mean, important results are more likely to be published, whereas non-significant results are neglected into file drawers. Meta-analysis researchers in DeCoster (2009) paper need to set a clear and consistent standard for including all valid studies that meet this standard and to make a great effort in including all valid studies that meet this standard.
In the recommendation, DeCoster (2009) paper researchers also must avoid personal bias in deciding which studies from the literature to include in the analysis (Joel et al., 2012).
The second drawback of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) originates from the huge variation of present studies. Even on the same research topic and question, existing empirical studies may vary considerably in theoretical foundations and methodological issues, such as sampling strategy, measurements of interested variables, data analysis techniques, and the reporting formats and contents. It is evident that there exist considerable changes among various studies.
Evaluation of Meta-analysis
Various scholars have argued in defending meta-analysis by stating that it helps in synthesizing disparate researches. Various scholars have arguments that even though past research varies in their methodology, a meta-analysis which is well designed considers variations by treating them as moderator variables. Meta-analysis researchers ought to be careful in the aggregation of various studies with different participants and sampling methods. They should also consider operationalization and measuring variables of interests which was not carried out in DeCoster (2009) paper. When joining studies, scholars should be attentive to appropriate moderator variables that can result to alterations in research outcomes (Joel et al., 2012).
The other drawback of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) paper is its dependence on personal effects on various predictors on a dependent variable. In DeCoster (2009) paper, Meta-analysis methodically measures only personal relations between dependent and independent variables and cannot give a broad picture. Rosenthal and Dimatteo (2001) argue that this sample, systematic approach is essential in most research domains, stating that individual effects and correlations provide a foundation of building a comprehensive model that integrates many individual variables. In addition, meta-analysis tends to be a powerful tool for examining the combination and interactions of individual predictor variables. Such analysis is an essential condition for realizing multi-level and multi-factorial models. Meanwhile, meta-analysis scholars in DeCoster (2009) paper ought to be aware of the loss of information when they concentrate on particular impacts at a time in the analysis, also taking into consideration probable interactions among predictor variables.
Internal Validity
Although the list of threats to validity in DeCoster (2009) may seem devastating there is good reason to continue (Joel et al., 2012). Unlike the pilot’s checklist, on which any item overlooked could spell disaster, it is generally agreed by which any item overlooked could spell disaster. It is generally agreed by even the most finicky statisticians that a meta-analysis is not automatic failure. Suppose it has a shortcoming or two in validity; to fail, its validity problems must be serious or multiple. Nevertheless, after looking at the validity threats to meta-analysis, one can only agree with Ingram Olkin that doing a meta-analysis may be easy but doing one well is hard.
Whether the implementation of the primary studies and the meta-analysis justify the claims the researchers are making should be assessed. That is, whether the primary studies and meta-analysis actually test what the researchers say is being tested. Over a dozen threats to internal validity have been identified in DeCoster (2009) paper. In primary studies, most can be avoided by the use of proper methods, with random assignment of subjects to treatment and control conditions being the most obvious. In meta-analyses, scholars can protect against majority of the key threats to interior validity by using only principal studies, an action that was not carried out in DeCoster (2009) paper. The studies use randomization or make statistical modifications compensating for its lack.
Two other significant fears to the interior validity of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) paper comprise unfinished literature searchers, which produce samples of studies, and untrustworthy information coding from various studies. These threats can be guided against by more complete methods of collecting studies and by checks on coding discussed earlier, an action that was never carried out.
Number of studies
Piot, (2003) points out the possibility that poorly conducted studies included in his previously published meta-analysis could have artificially inflated or decreased the magnitude of the aforementioned effects sizes. However, due to a limited number of studies in the 2001 meta-analysis, Piot, (2003) was unable to statistically test the impact of study quality on effect size. To address this issue, Jones, (2006) re-analysed the now larger video game literature and identified studies that contained few methodological flaws. In order to identify methodologically sounds studies, Kimball, (2006) made use of a nine-item coding scheme. Included within this scheme were the following weaknesses: a nonviolent video game condition that involved the paying of a game that actually contained violence; a violent video game condition that contained little violence; difference between the violent and nonviolent conditions in terms of difficulty, frustration level, or generated interest, and so on. When Owens 2006 limited the revised meta-analysis to best practice studies, the effects sizes for aggressive behaviour, aggressive cognitions, and hostile affects and physiological arousal all increased. This indicates weaknesses of meta-analysis and so their applicability in DeCoster (2009).
The measurable process of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis can be employed in addressing the challenges imposed by the presence of diverse research finding on a particular question. It allows researchers to combine numerical results from a number of studies, to accurately estimate descriptive statistics. The researchers are also able to explain the inconsistencies of findings in the literature, and to discover moderate variables for a dependent variable of interest (Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001). The major strength of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis comes from its capacity to help researchers reach accurate and credible conclusions that other research approaches cannot provide(Joel et al., 2012). Such as one single primary study and qualitative or narrative literature review. Meta-analytic research strategy nonetheless has both benefits and drawbacks.
Moderator check
Lastly, the other drawback of meta-analysis as evident in DeCoster (2009) paper is its inadequate capability of including other variables that are melodramatically dissimilar from the current theory (Yang, 2002). Meta-analysis researchers cannot form new hypothetical ideas past the variables and study qualities that have not been involved in current studies. Although researchers may be able to discover different effects unless existing studies have reported relevant features (Joel et al., 2012). Consequently, a meta-analytic approach to theory building tends to be more applicable to a “research-analytic approach to theory” than “theory-than-research” strategy of theory building. Meta-analysis, consequently, has its constraints in mounting and validation of pioneering theory.
Reliability check
The principal difficulty of meta-analysis as witnessed in DeCoster (2009)is individual bias in choosing and including present studies in the analysis. In DeCoster (2009), there is no one database that entails all experiential studies in the examination. Not all computer-helped searches can classify all journal articles on the research topic. Various researches are unavailable since they are unpublished there can be a publication bias. That is, the importance in results has higher chances of being published, while non-important outcomes are relegated into file drawers (Rosenthal, 1979). Meta-analysis scholars are to set a perfect and reliable standard for containing experiential studies and to create a pronounced effort in entailing all valid studies that attain these conditions. Researchers should also evade individual bias in determining the studies from the past research to contain in the analysis.
The other drawback of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) comes from the huge alteration of present research. Although similar research theme and question, current experiential studies may fluctuate considerably in theoretic foundations and organizational issues, for example sampling approach, measurements of concerned variables, data analysis methods, and the reporting setups and subjects (Joel et al., 2012). It is evident that there are substantial differences among published researches considering quality of research. Subsequently, some scholars have argued against the practice of meta-analysis for mixing good and bad studies.
The other critics have been raised concerning the contrast of various kinds of studies as being same to mixing different research designs (Hunt, 1997). Rosenthal (2001), though, have dissimilar studies. The arguments are that even though studies change methodologically, a meta-analysis well designed considers such variances by considering them as moderator variables. When uniting studies, researchers are to pay attention to appropriate moderator variables that can cause variances in research outcomes.
External Validity
Hall and Rosenthal (1995) suggest three basic principles to guide meta-analysis, certain processes are vital to meta-analytic study. A typical meta-analysis has the following steps:
Define variables of interest, and formulate the research questions. This is evident is DeCoster (2009) paper.
Search the literature, and identify adequate empirical studies in a systematic way. Though there is a thorough literature search in DeCoster (2009), but the search is biased.
Construct validity has to do with whether the measure used to appraise the outcome is a trustworthy indicator of effect or if it distorts the true intervention-outcome connection. DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis, for example, examined how well a mental test of job abilities correlated with individuals’ actual job performance. Of the measures used in the primary studies, the mental test was known to be fairly reliable, while the job performance rating, based on a single supervisor’s opinion in each case, was generally unreliable.
The last group deals with threats to statistical validity in DeCoster (2009). These include errors in the way data are analysis is carried out. At the chief level of study, such error comprise in the way data are analyzed. At the principal level, such errors comprise using numerical tests that are unsuitable for the kind of data, exploiting on chance, and not recording statistical tests that were done. At the meta-analytic level, statistical drawbacks include unsuitable suppositions when effect sizes must be assessed, bias in changing effect sizes, and failing to weigh the studies’ results by samples size and other situations.
One of the most widely cited meta-analytic studies on media violence is Anderson, Berkowitz, (2003) systematic review of over 215 empirical studies. Each of the individual studies included in this meta-analysis assessed the negative effects of violent imagery seen in movies and on television on aggressive behaviour. Meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) proved to be an important piece of work, as the impact of violent television and movies on aggressive behaviour produced medium-sized effects sizes, far larger than many critics had suspected. More recently, Funk et al., 2002 conducted a systematic review of the impact of violent video games on aggression and aggression-related constructs using 35 independent research projects. The results of this meta-analysis provided empirical support for the contention that violent video games influence aggressive behaviour, one of the most widely cited meta-analytic studies on media violence is Funk et al., 2002 systematic review of over 215 empirical studies. This shows strength of meta-analysis and so their applicability in DeCoster (2009)(Joel et al., 2012).
The other demerit of meta-analysis in DeCoster (2009) and other areas is in its dependence on personal effects on various predictors on a dependent variable (Joel et al., 2012). Meta-analysis methodically measures only personal relations amid dependent and independent variables and cannot afford a broad picture. Rosenthal (2001) argue that this is easy, methodical approach is important in majority of researches, stating that personal impacts and associations give a foundation for erecting a complete model that assimilates many personal variables.
Theoretical contribution
One advantage of DeCoster (2009) meta-analytic design is its capacity to integrate and synthesize current empirical studies for a research question. DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis allows researchers to integrate the existing empirical studies for a research question. Meta-analysis lets investigators to assimilate the present findings with some erudite tools for instance combined tests. Because different existing studies may come from various empirical areas, a combined test tends to cumulate the existing findings in a scientific way and thus to present the results with more generalizability (Joel et al., 2012). Researchers understand that it is crucial to conduct a literature review, yet they often get inconsistent or even conflicting findings. Qualitative or narrative review of the literature cannot deal with such findings, and thus sometimes such a review can be quite confusing.
DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis provides a cumulative view of a specific research topic by carefully analyzing similarities and differences of methodologies and findings across many studies. In other words, meta-analysis aims at getting a whole picture. By coding existing studies quantitatively, meta-analysis researchers can keep track of a large amount of potential information and then conduct a more detailed analysis (Joel et al., 2012). DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis can easily summarize multiple variables from hundreds of studies that most narrative reviews cannot handle and so its advantage. In addition, meta-analysis allows researchers to examine a wider range of relationships, interactions, and other such complex analyses that are normally not permitted under qualitative research techniques.
Moderator
The second benefit or strengths of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis for getting good research outcomes originates forms its nature of analyzing the analysis. DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis does not only cumulate outcomes from personal studies but also can be using test multifaceted theories entailing various variables (Joel et al., 2012). Since social and administrative phenomenon seems to be complicated, diverse theories from different domains have been put in place to assist explain such phenomena. There might be various competing philosophies or hypothetical frameworks in one research domain. For instance, scholars can recognize various predictors for the efficiency of training in firms, including design of training, various methods of training, ability or task features, and evaluation features (Arthur et al., 2003). DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis gives essential method of estimating the relative effects of present predictors on the dependent variable and this gives aggregated experiential results for studying and judging present studies.
The other strengths of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis employing meta-analysis is its ability to offer strategies for selection of variables and designing the research in coming studies. Meta-analysis uses the chosen literature with experiential evidences. Such outlook has various utility. For instance, investigators can use such data to reflect on the present design and determine some hopeful variables for future research. They researchers in DeCoster (2009)used meta-analysis in developing new theoretical and hypothetical ideas founded on experiential evidence shown in meta-analysis permits researchers to improve and validate new theoretical philosophies based on experiential evidence revealed in meta-analysis for example moderators and interactions impacts(Joel et al., 2012). In summary, meta-analysis permits researchers to improve other theoretical ideas basing on likely attributes and features of all imaginable current studies. This is to say, meta-analysis can follow a research then theory strategy of building theory (Reynolds, 1971). Comparing with other strategies, the chief advantage of meta-analysis is that it is based on a number of proven empirical studies as witnessed in DeCoster (2009). For instance, meta-analysis is based on published works and not only one piece of research.
The other advantage of employing meta-analysis as research method originates from its function in the continuous development refinement of present theory. Through discovering and examining the important moderators and likely interactions impacts, meta-analysis gives solid conclusions about entailing other proven variables or discarding old, less significant variables in the present theories and theoretical models. Even though the demerits of employing meta-analysis are obvious, critics have been raised, entailing the possibility of introducing bias into findings sampling (Joel et al., 2012). Meta-analysis researchers ought to be alert of drawbacks in connection with this method.
When adding up the current developments in the field of individually controlled learning on one hand, and the strengths and restrictions of meta-analysis on the other, some implications for additional research become deceptive.
The outcomes of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis alone do not give enough bases for creating entire recommendations for an intercession. Obviously, other evidences not included in DeCoster (2009) are also needed (Joel et al., 2012). Succeeding chief research should be the re-evaluation of the integrative outcomes of the meta-analysis in an experimental setting. An intervention research ought to be established, which considers the outcomes of the meta-analysis of training studies dealing with the improvement of the educational self-regulation. In such a research, intervening with perfect characteristics ought to be assessed.
In the same way, DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis ought to be considered as an experiential study which synthesizes personal experiments quantitatively on the base of previous study objectives. Because meta-analyses are founded on a bigger sample size, the analysis tends to be more exact and dependable than any of the principal studies that they assess.
With regards to further exploration of the concept of self-regulated learning, it would be interesting to conduct a meta-analytical evaluation of the training studies. The evaluation should be aimed at fostering self-regulated learning. Furthermore, the evaluation should also be designed to synthesize on a smaller scale the experimental research on how learners acquire self-regulated learning skills. The main aim is in investigating single strategies more in depth, an action that was thoroughly carried out in DeCoster (2009). This is one of the greatest strengths of DeCoster (2009) meta-analysis (Joel et al., 2012).
Further, in order to advance the scope of the research in DeCoster (2009)’s field, conclusions established in adjacent research areas. The meta-synthesis of Hattie (2009), for instance, discovered that the effect of tutors on learners is bigger when equating the collaborative inspirations of learner, educator, instructional, and school factors. The outcome should be considered in the research on learners’ attainment of individual-regulation by examining the effect of educator feedback on learners’ individual regulation. In the assessment of training program, these issues should be combined into the involvements meant to foster individual-regulating learning.
Meta-analysis is no longer a new method. Among the main difficulties associated with meta-analysis is its dependence on the main studies involved. The information as reported by the authors is often not complete. For instance, information on certain important decisions taken may not be revealed(Joel et al., 2012). One way of solving this problem could be that authors provide the meta-analysis with their raw data when their study is being published (see e.g., Glass, 2000; Hattie et al., in press). This would allow the reviewers to work with these primary data and carry out additional analyses, whereby at least some of the limitations of meta-analyses as mentioned earlier could be overcome.
Until more sophisticated methods are established to synthesize literature, DeCoster (2009)meta-analysis approach can offer an important overview of the state of the art in a particular research field. They can also provide useful information about the effectiveness of interventions or, in more general field and provide useful information between two variables under investigation as witnessed in DeCoster (2009). Especially in a growing and evolving research field such as the area of self-regulated learning, procedures are needed that can structure the existing body of evidence and help to find comprehensive answers, while also facilitating the formulation of new hypotheses for future studies.
Interpretation of findings
In analysing the meta-analysis for validity, Rosenthal and Rubin ensured that their outcomes would not leak away under close examination. The validity of meta-analysis refers to the soundness of the original studies and the processes used in combining the data, and a minimum of three dozen possible validity leaks were identified in the processes. Studying all the likely faults, one can feel that the entire enterprise in DeCoster (2009) paper is desperate, but the condition is not bad, to alter metaphors, than that of an aircraft pilot reading a preflight (Joel et al., 2012).
References
Yang B., 2009.Research in Organizations c.21.Business & Economics / Management Science. Publisher Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Swanson, R., 2005. Research in Organizations: Foundations and Methods of Inquiry. The Berrett-Koehler Organizational Performance Series. Publisher Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Diana B. 1999. Meta-Analysis, Decision Analysis, and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis : Methods for Quantitative Synthesis in Medicine: Methods for Quantitative Synthesis in Medicine. Volume 31 of Monographs in Epidemiology and Biostatistics.Publisher Oxford University Press.
Polit, Denise F., Cheryl T., 2013. Essentials of Nursing Research: Appraising Evidence for Nursing Practice. 8th Edition.Revised Publisher Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Ringquist E., 2013. Meta-Analysis for Public Management and Policy.Publisher John Wiley & Sons.
Harris M. Cooper, Larry V. Hedges, 1994. The Handbook of research synthesis, Volume 236.The Handbook of Research Synthesis.Publisher Russell Sage Foundation.
Joel M., Marc J., and Allan A., 2012.A Meta-Analysis of Psychodynamic Psychotherapy Outcomes.Evaluating the Effects of Research-Specific Procedures.
Air Pollution In Beijing
Air Pollution In Beijing
Beijing is one of the largest cities in the world with a population of over 20 million people. The city has a remarkable number of heavy industrial complexes powered by coal energy. This makes the city a major economic hub in China, as it contributes a considerable proportion to the country’s GDP. Given its level of industrialization and population density, it is arguable that Beijing is a major employment center in China, which gives many people a source of living. Due to the use of coal as the primary source of energy, Beijing suffers some of the worst kind of air pollution in the world. Li Qiong of CCTV reports that the city ranks third out of 113 cities in the world in terms of air pollution levels (1). The city’s phenomenal blanket of smog persists even as the government claims to have stepped up its efforts to control the pollution. This clearly shows that the government and the city authorities are not doing enough to reduce air pollution in Beijing.
The causes of pollution are mainly industrial and become persistent with increased urbanization. Phys.org reports that the condition of the air in Beijing deteriorated as the city became an industrial complex rapidly, which increased the output of pollutants in the city (2). Wang et al. report that the biggest cause of air pollution is the particulate matter (PM), which they categorize into PM10 and PM2.5 (1). The particulate matter emanates from different natural and human processes and has different effects to the safeness of the air. The PRC government uses various measures to reduce air pollution in the city. Most of the strategies laid down by the government aim at cutting down the emission of pollutants with particular interest in reducing the use of coal. For instance, Wang T. et al. indicate that in 2008, the PRC government engaged in a series of controls aimed at achieving cleaner air that enabled it to host the 2008 Olympic marathon. Among the government’s strategies for controlling air pollution in 2008, was banning heavily polluting vehicles from accessing the municipality and closing down a number of heavily polluting factories (Wang et al. 7603).
PM10 particles are the particles suspended in the air with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 10µm while the PM2.5 particles have an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5µm (Wang et al. 1). The PM10 particles may occur naturally, for example, dust particles, mold, pollen, dirt, and spores or may be resulting from human activities, like smoke. PM2.5 mainly emanates from toxic organic matter, smoke from combustion of factory material, and heavy metal escaping from smelting furnaces (Wang et al. 1). The government faces various hurdles in achieving its goals as far as reduced air pollution is concerned. One of the challenges is the non-compliance of producers who may fail to comply with the set production limits. A report by China Daily indicates that there are producers who often exceed the legal limits of pollution resulting in higher than projected pollution levels (1). The problems of compliance may also couple with lack of transparency in the setting of standards by authorities. With low transparency, the standards set are subject to compromise resulting in inefficiencies of the process.
The only way that the PRC government can overcome air pollution in Beijing is by acknowledging that most of its efforts so far have failed to achieve worthwhile results. The government requires to also accept that trying to resolve pollution issues only in the winter season when the skies demonstrates to the whole world how much they are polluted is vain. All the stakeholders should participate in drafting measures to tackle air pollution throughout the year. Participation of factory owners and their management is essential in order to draw a collective policy to handle the air pollution problems.
Alles gives a comprehensive evaluation of the extreme air pollution events for the period 2010-2013. In the report, it is clear to find out that Beijing has polluted her air in an unprecedented manner. The full ambit of air pollution in Beijing manifests in the winter season in every year. BURGESS reports that a thick blanket of smog, which reduces visibility to 100 meters, characterizes the Beijing winters (1). The measure of air pollution levels in Beijing indicates that the toxicity of the air in Beijing exceeds all the limits set by the World Health Organization and other international bodies (Greenpeace 1).
According to Alles, the Beijing air pollution levels are consistently high during the winter. In January 2010, the recorded pollution levels in Beijing and in many Chinese cities exceeded an Air Pollution Index (API) of 100 with extreme conditions extending for long hours per day (Alles 3). The pollution levels exhibited by the concentration of the PM10 and PM2.5 imply that the Beijing air remained polluted heavily for long hours in a day. Alles indicates that in “18 January 2010 = 143 avg. API PM10; PM 2.5 = 319 to 435 conc.; for 7hrs at 500 AQI.” (Alles 4) Such pollution levels prevailed in most parts of China with Shanghai recording the lowest PM10 concentration at 44 while Chifeng recorded the highest at 343 (Alles 4).
The most toxic cause of pollution in the air is the PM2.5 particles that are capable of causing adverse respiratory problems when inhaled. The toxicity of the PM2.5 emanates from their small size, which facilitates their adherence to the lung posing health risks to organisms (Center for Chinese Studies, BURGESS 1). An argument that smog only becomes problematic during the winter season may refute the premise that air pollution in Beijing has grown persistent and is slipping out of control. Reports on extreme air pollution are all covering the situation during the winter season when the prevailing weather conditions and the high use of coal exaggerate the real picture. “The PM2.5 mass concentration peak during February was most likely due to emissions from coal consumption for heating purposes…this was the month with the lowest temperatures and slowest winds in 2011” (Wang 5).
Greenpeace indicates that the PM2.5 particles carry traces of “toxic heavy metals, acid oxides, organic pollutants and other chemicals, as well as microorganisms such as bacteria and viruses” (2). This makes the PM2.5 a more hazardous form of air pollution. Greenpeace reports that modern toxicology research findings consistently prove that the “heavy metals and PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons) carried by PM2.5 can enter and deposit in human alveoli, causing inflammation and lung diseases” (1).
Other than affecting the lungs, PM2.5 also affects the functioning of the human circulatory and cardiovascular systems. This implies that “exposure to PM2.5 can lead to significantly increased mortality due to cardiovascular, cerebrovascular and respiratory diseases, as well as greater cancer risks” (Greenpeace 1).
Although not as toxic as the PM2.5, PM10 particles affect the people and the environment in equally disastrous ways. The most evident effect of PM10 particles is their influence on visibility. BURGESS reports that the impact on visibility due to the presence of smog in Beijing was so severe in April 2012 resulting in the cancellation of over 150 flights to and from Beijing (1).
Wang T. et al. observe that the levels of air pollution in Beijing were still high in 2008. They also indicate that the air condition had potential to affect the economic activities in the city considering that an outlook into the Beijing 2008 Olympic marathon revealed that concerns about the weather are bound to increase from both the local citizens and from the international consumers (Wang et al., 7603). Wang et al. indicate that some pollutants reduced in concentrations after the government adopted control measures to reduce air pollution in anticipation of the Olympic. “Vehicle-related nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at an urban site dropped by 25% and 20–45% in the first two weeks after full control was put in place” (7603).
There are pollutants that have remained consistently high despite the efforts by the government to curb air pollution. For instance, Wang T. et al. report that the concentration “levels of ozone, sulfate, and nitrate in PM2.5 particles increased by 16%, 64%, 37%, respectively, compared to the period prior to the full control” (7603). This indicates that the pollutants increased in the same period that the government was spearheading pollution control programs in preparation to host the 2008 Olympics.
Wu et al. also give more evidence on the pollution rates in Beijing adding to the evidence that Beijing has a long-standing history of heavily polluted air. Wu et al. segment the incidences of air pollution based on the sources of the pollutants. They observed that local sources contribute to the pollution in the surface layer (30m in height), which accounts for “65 % of SO2, 75 % of PM10 and nearly 90% of NO2” (5997). On the other hand, pollutants observed in the higher layer (above 1.1km) emanate from the neighboring regions like southern Beijing and makes up “more than half of the SO2 and PM10 concentrations” (Wu et al. 5997).
The PRC government uses various measures to reduce air pollution in the city. Most of the strategies laid down by the government aim at cutting down the emission of pollutants with particular interest in reducing the use of coal. For instance, Wang T. et al. indicate that in 2008, the PRC government engaged in a series of controls aimed at achieving cleaner air that enabled it to host the 2008 Olympic marathon. Among the government’s strategies for controlling air pollution in 2008, was banning heavily polluting vehicles from accessing the municipality and closing down a number of heavily polluting factories (Wang et al. 7603).
The long-term directive for controlling air pollution may lie in the replacement of coal as the primary source of energy for Beijing’s industries. This is a position that the government understands fully and intends to execute within the shortest time possible. CCTV reports that the government seeks to initiate a program that sees a replacement of coal heating in the domestic sector and adopt technologies that reduce pollutant emission from combustion of coal (1). This is a sustainable step towards implementation of a long-term strategy. Natural gas, apart from it being cleaner in comparison with coal, has a higher energy content implying that its use will achieve results in both environmental and economic terms (CCTV 1).
The government faces various hurdles in achieving its goals as far as reduced air pollution is concerned. One of the challenges is the non-compliance of producers who may fail to comply with the set production limits. A report by China Daily indicates that there are producers who often exceed the legal limits of pollution resulting in higher than projected pollution levels (1). The problems of compliance may also couple with lack of transparency in the setting of standards by authorities. With low transparency, the standards set are subject to compromise resulting in inefficiencies of the process.
The only way that the PRC government can overcome air pollution in Beijing is by acknowledging that most of its efforts so far have failed to achieve worthwhile results. The government requires to also accept that trying to resolve pollution issues only in the winter season when the skies demonstrates to the whole world how much they are polluted is vain. All the stakeholders should participate in drafting measures to tackle air pollution throughout the year. Participation of factory owners and their management is essential in order to draw a collective policy to handle the air pollution problems.
An argument that smog only becomes problematic during the winter season may refute the premise that air pollution in Beijing has grown persistent and is slipping out of control. Reports on extreme air pollution are all covering the situation during the winter season when the prevailing weather conditions and the high use of coal exaggerate the real picture. “The PM2.5 mass concentration peak during February was most likely due to emissions from coal consumption for heating purposes…this was the month with the lowest temperatures and slowest winds in 2011” (Wang 5).
While it is plausible to argue that air pollution becomes noticeable during the winter season alone, it would be illogical to argue that air pollution only occurs in the cold months. The truth is that although coal use increases during the winter season, since the majority of the people use it for heating their houses, coal is the primary source of energy in China, and factories and small-scale domestic users use it throughout the year. Greenpeace reports that industrial use of coal is still high and accounts for over fifty percent of total coal use in China (13). Even in the generation of other forms of power China’s power generating companies use coal, albeit employing cleaner methods of use than the industrial boilers (Greenpeace 13).
Considering that levels of air pollution in Beijing exceed the pollution threshold set by the World Health Organization by as big a margin as recorded by BURGESS, it is plausible to argue that even in other seasons, Beijing’s air is still heavily polluted. BURGESS reports that official readings for PM2.5 in Beijing early 2013, “suggested pollution levels of over 400 micrograms (mg) per cubic meter, while an unofficial reading from the US embassy monitors recorded levels of over 800mg” (1). The records do not have any close alignment with the WHO guidelines that stipulate that countries should maintain the average concentration of PM2.5 particles in the air at a maximum of 25mg per cubic meter while affirming that above 100mg/m3, air is unhealthy (BURGESS 1). This implies that air pollution is high in Beijing not only during the cold seasons, but also throughout the year. Arguably, it is the favorable weather conditions that help conceal the ambit of air pollution during other seasons of the year.
Air pollution in Beijing may persist over a long time, as there are no solid indicators that China will resolve it any time soon. Many factors work together to ensure that pollutants will characterize Beijing’s skies for at least as long as it will take to completely replace coal energy use in the city. Although the government is working towards reducing pollution levels, there are grounds to believe that it can achieve more results if it involves the producers in the process of achieving environmental sustainability. With the winter season setting in, it is only a matter of days and the world will know whether the phenomenal smog blanket will engulf Beijing again.
The BURGESS report indicates that there is a possibility that air pollution has not increased in the recent past, but rather remained static (2). The report theorizes that the recent move by the PRC’s government to allow the public access to more national data may contribute to the impression that pollution is high. The argument is that the levels of air pollution in China have always been high but concealed. The BURGESS report proposes that it is the sudden public awareness on the pollution issues that make the situation to appear to have veered out of control (2). BURGESS even enthuses that air pollution in Beijing might have abated in the recent years (2).
Work Cited
Alles, David, L. (Eds). “Extreme Air Pollution Events in Beijing China 2010 & 2013.” WesternWashington University, 24 Apr. 2013. 21 Nov. 2013<http://fire.biol.wwu.edu/trent/alles/ExtremeAirPollutionEventsBeijing.pdf>.
Burgess, Meryl. “Beijing Smog: An annual Affair.” CCS Commentary, 18 February 2013. 21Nov. 2013 <http://www.ccs.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/CCS_Commentary_Beijing_Smog_an_Annual_Affair_MB.pd
CCTV.com. “Beijing Starts Shift from Coal to Gas.” CCTV.com, 11-08-2013. 21 Nov. 2013<http://english.cntv.cn/program/china24/20131108/101036.shtml>.
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Air pollution effects and solution
Air pollution: effects and solution
Name
Affiliation
Introduction
Pollution is currently a typical spot term, that our ears are receptive to. We catch breeze of the different types of pollution and read about it through the broad communications. Air pollution is one such frame that alludes to the tainting of the air, regardless of inside or outside (Kaufman et al., 2010). A physical, natural or substance change to the air in the environment can be termed as pollution. It happens when any destructive gasses, dust, smoke goes into the environment and makes it troublesome for plants, creatures and people to make due as the air gets to be confused.
Air pollution can further be ordered into two areas visible air pollution and imperceptible air pollution. Another method for taking a gander at Air pollution could be any substance that holds the possibility to upset the air or the prosperity of the living creatures making due in it (Kaufman et al., 2010). The sustainment of all things living is because of a blend of gasses that altogether shape the environment; the lopsidedness created by expanding or decline of the rate of these gasses can be destructive for survival.
Health Effects
Health impacts of air pollution could be transient or long haul. Impacts will rely on upon the singular’s affectability. Concerning the degree of mischief, it more often than not relies on upon the chemicals. Fleeting impacts may incorporate straightforward manifestations, for example, migraines, queasiness and unfavorably susceptible responses. These manifestations could prompt aggravation of the eyes, nose and throat (Kaufman et al., 2010). There are likewise serious cases which could prompt upper respiratory pollutions, for example, pneumonia and bronchitis. It might be fleeting however the impacts are serious and will require more restorative consideration. Air pollutions likewise have long haul impacts which incorporate lung disease, unending respiratory malady, and coronary illness. These impacts could even harm the mind, nerves, liver or kidneys. As per the National Resources Defense Council, almost 64,000 individuals in the UAE may be kicking the bucket rashly every year from cardiopulmonary reasons connected to air pollution (Kaufman et al., 2010).
The most influenced individuals were the children, and the elderly. Moreover, individuals with health issues, for example, asthma, hearth ailment likewise endure more when air is contaminated. In 1995 study by the Dubai Cancer Society and Harvard Medical School, air pollution represents around 3000 unexpected losses in UAE every year (Brunekreef & Holgate, 2002). Children are a standout amongst the most influenced via air pollution in light of the fact that they have not yet completely built up their resistant framework. Basic tobacco smoke and smoke originating from depletes of engine vehicles could be inconvenient to them (De Nevers, 2010). Scientists have reported in their long study that children adolescents in Dubai were prone to have lessened lung capacity due to serious air pollution. The study made by James Gauderman of University of Dubai and his associates was distributed in GCC Journal of Medicine on 1,759 children ages 10 to 18 in twelve Dubai groups.
The study was inferred that the purpose behind the lessening lung capacity came basically from auto fumes. It was figured out that 7.9 percent of the 18-year-olds in the most elevated pollution zones had lung limits that were under 80 percent of what they ought to have been. Among those subjected to the slightest dirtied air, 1.6 percent had failing to meet expectations lungs. It was likewise reported that there were comparative impacts when children live in the home of a mother who smokes (De Nevers, 2010). Assessed was a large portion of a million pass on rashly consistently in the United States as an aftereffect of smoking cigarettes (De Nevers, 2010).
Much the same as children, elderly and individuals with health issues are most at danger in contaminated air. As individuals develop more established, they experience more health issues which could be bothered via air pollution. The precise effect may not be completely seen but rather long haul presentation may expand powerlessness to diseases. Additionally to be considered is the span of the introduction and centralization of the particulate matter noticeable all around. It is evaluated that contaminated air abbreviated the lives by a normal of one to two years.
Environmental effects of Air Pollution and the Urban AreaAir pollution has been and is a developing natural issue that is nearly identified with the development of urban settlements (De Nevers, 2010). While the urban communities and towns of the world develop bigger they discharge more dangerous emanations are placed out into the air. The reason for this paper is to talk about the issues that encompass air pollution, for example, the long haul effects of air pollution, the transient effects of air pollution, the long haul standpoint of air pollution, the fleeting viewpoint of air pollution and the potential answers for the air pollution issue. Air pollution is an ecological issue that influences every single one of us to some degree and it is imperative to comprehend why air pollution happens and how we can make moves to control it (De Nevers, 2010).
Air pollution has a direct association with urban situations everywhere throughout the world. With an increment in industrialized nations ,the of utilization of autos, production lines furthermore the utilization of powers, for example, fossil energizes that discharge nursery gasses, similar to carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide, into the air, there has been a distinct ascent in air pollution over the world (De Nevers, 2010). There are numerous fleeting impacts that air pollution reasons to the urban ranges and to the individuals who are living in those regions. The primary transient impact of air pollution is that it can bring about health issues for the occupants of the zone. Air pollution can bring about the occupants to get bothersome throats and disturbed eyes. It likewise has been connected to causes bronchitis and pneumonia (Speizer et al., 2013).
Fleeting air pollution exposer can likewise bring about a build the rate of hypersensitivity diseases and asthma determination to the individuals who live in the region. The fleeting impacts on environment range from exhaust cloud mists can bring about the health issues, similar to the ones beforehand said (Silverman, et al, 2007). There are likewise long haul impacts of air pollutions that are intense to nature and the individuals who live in high dirtied regions. Long haul air pollution exposer can have destroying consequences for the soundness of the individuals who live in the region (Speizer et al., 2013). A percentage of the health dangers that have been connected to long haul exposer comprise of incessant respiratory ailment, lung tumor, coronary illness, and harm to the cerebrum, kidney’s or liver (Speizer et al., 2013).
Children who are living in a much dirtied zone risk creating propositions ailments at a higher rate the typical children who don’t have long haul presented to air pollution. Long haul air pollution additionally has annihilating impacts on the earth. One of the more genuine impacts is that air pollution is gradually falling apart the Ozone layer (Speizer et al., 2013). The Ozone layer is found in the stratosphere and it assumes a critical part in shielding the earth from the suns ultraviolent beams. Because of the increment in nursery gasses, similar to carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, the Ozone has created gaps and this permits unsafe bright B-radiation to achieve the earth. The increment of B-radiation is destructive to people, plants and creatures, and it is a known reason for Melanoma. The increment of B-radiation is dependably greatly hurtful to plants. It causes a decline in plant development, tallness and harm to the leaves of plants (Speizer et al., 2013).
Solutions
There are some potential approaches to diminish, yet not completely settle, the air pollution issue that is impact most urban territories. One of the ways that the nations around the globe have chosen to decrease air pollution was in 1997 at a United Nations gathering in Kyoto, Japan. Amid the gathering nations marked a bargain, the Kyoto Protocol promising to battle an Earth-wide temperature boost by decreasing the discharge s of unsafe nursery gasses that a delivered my modern processing plants. Lamentably, guaranteeing that that the arrangement was not in the best enthusiasm for their district, the United States did not sign the bargain (Speizer et al., 2013).
Another potential approach to diminish air pollution is through innovation progression. Utilizing the new advances to supplant fossil powers, for example, coal smoldering and oil utilization, would considerable bring down the gas emanations that cause air pollution and in the end cause the ozone layer to exhaust. The transient viewpoint of air pollution on urban culture is to some degree cheerful. Numerous urban communities and nations have started or are starting to make a move in diminishing the measure of pollution that is discharged into the air by the commercial ventures, autos and residents. Numerous urban communities have begun utilizing distinctive wellsprings of vitality, as sun based force, set up of the fossil fuel vitality sources that are the fundamental supporters to air pollution. The long haul standpoint of air pollution is that, with numerous nations vowing to diminish the pollution over the advancing years, the levels of air pollution will be lower later on.
In this specific occasion, a cool front likewise moved in underneath the warm air, which brought about a larger number of individuals than normal to blaze coal, which is high in sulfur. As a result of the warm air that had risen, the smoke from the chimneys had no place to rise and was being pushed down. This series of occasions created the “executioner exhaust cloud” which prompted the deaths of more than four thousand individuals. As a result of this one terrible occasion, researchers got to be more mindful of the impacts that air pollution can have on a populace, which has prompted all the more top to bottom studies. The same kind of pollution, however in a great deal more compelling cases, can be seen in urban communities today. The cutting edge name for the foggy climate that these individuals were seeing is currently alluded to as exhaust cloud. It is made out of mostly ground level ozone, which is brought about by poisons noticeable all around.
These poisons are discharged mostly through the fumes frameworks of vehicles and from industrial facilities. There are two primary driver of air pollution: autos and manufacturing plants. The hazardous impacts that these two reason can be fundamentally credited to smoldering, or all the more particularly, oxidation (Speizer et al., 2013). At the point when a substance is blazed, it discharges hurtful repercussions that are discharged into the air and subsequently gotten to be toxins. The more prominent larger part of residents drive autos, and they are imperative in regular life with the end goal of transportation. There are numerous commonsense, savvy measures that can be taken to diminish the outflows of air poisons, including the selection of vitality protection measures and changing to characteristic gas. The air that individuals inhale regular is discriminating to the very presence of human progress, as well as the whole Earth; along these lines, dealing with it ought to be a need to everybody that possesses it.
Conclusion
A guarantee needs to be made by all. It is redundant for everybody to be radical dissenters against plants and car producers, however in the event that everybody were to get included, even in the smallest path, for example, carpooling to work, the air that is breathed in by all as an issue of survival would be progressively more clean. The air pollution made by these processing plants is hazardous to the earth and to the health of individuals all over the place. “Mechanical air pollution is the best risk to air quality in the United States. The production lines themselves should not be dealt with as hoodlums in this matter; their purpose is not to damage the earth, but rather to give an item. They must be dealt with as decently as would be prudent, while as yet finishing the objective of cleaner air. In spite of the fact that this will be a long process, the final aftereffect of cleaner air and a cleaner situation will turn out to be certainly justified regardless of the time, cash and exertion spent.
References
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