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How Gender Influences VO2 Max
How Gender Influences VO2 Max
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How Gender Influences VO2 Max
Aerobic fitness is the ability of the body to provide muscles with oxygen enabling a person to work through an activity. The lungs carry oxygen from the air and push it into the bloodstream. Blood and heart vessels deliver oxygen into the muscles and skeletal muscles put the oxygen to use to produce work. Cardiovascular assessments are a great tool for measuring the efficiency of such physiological functions. Tests used to measure VO2 mx assess maximum oxygen amounts that a person can take in at maximum exertion. VO2 max signals endurance for sports like long-distance running, triathlons, and skiing. VO2 max can enhance or limit performance even with optimal training. Both external and internal factors affect VO2 max.
Gender influences VO2 max, seeing that women tend to have a lower VO2 max than their male counterparts. This is the case because of physiology. The amount of blood that the heart pumps partially determines VO2 max. VO2 max is the measure of oxygen consumed during an exercise. Most female athletes tend to have higher VO2 max than their male counterparts. Due to the differences in composition, body size, hemoglobin content, and blood volume, the VO2 max for women is generally 20% lower than that of men (Putra, Arsyad, Huldani, Achmad, Sukmana, Adiputro, & Kasab, 2020). Pumping of the blood is a function determined by the types of fibers that make the heart muscles, the size of the heart, and the length of the stroke. Men that are generally big than women tend to have bigger hearts that pump more blood. Additionally, men also have lungs that are bigger than those belonging to women hence they take in more oxygen than women.
In closing, there are many factors that influence VO2 max and gender is one of them. In general, V02 max is lower in women than in males. Women’s VO2 max is about 20% less than that of a man.
References
Putra, A. P., Arsyad, A., Huldani, H., Achmad, H., Sukmana, B. I., Adiputro, D. L., & Kasab, J. (2020). Differences in VO2 max based on age, gender, hemoglobin levels, and leukocyte counts in Hajj prospective pilgrims in Hulu Sungai Tengah Regency, South Kalimantan. Differences in VO2 Max Based on Age, Gender, Hemoglobin Levels, and Leukocyte Counts in Hajj Prospective Pilgrims in Hulu Sungai Tengah Regency, South Kalimantan, 09-14.
How Films Depict the Filmmaking Process and the Film Industry
How Films Depict the Filmmaking Process and the Film Industry: A Case Study of Sunset Boulevard and The Dirties
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Introduction
What role does films play in shaping the industry, a sector, or even the process of filmmaking? In this case study, the main intention is to analyze how Billy Wilder’s Sunset Boulevard (1950) presents and depicts the entire process of filmmaking, with a particular interest on how Hollywood is structured, and to compare the same with Matt Johnson’s The Dirties (2013) from an independent filmmaking pint of view. The two films are about moviemaking where Billy Wilder looks at the environment that surrounds filmmakers, the Hollywood scene, the lavish life of stars and stardom, the expectations, and all the nitty gritty details of the film trade. In this case study, the internal structure and organization of the two aforementioned films will conceptualize how literary elements including theme, characterization, plot, and structure contribute to telling of a story with honorable mention to editing, lighting, sound, and camera angles. Billy Wilder helps this report in presenting an argument that filmmaking is not as it seems. To the untrained eye, filmmaking seems like a fun process, one that involves endless amounts of amusement, entertainment, and freedom. However, using Billy Wilder’s Sunset Boulevard (1950) and Matt Johnson’s The Dirties (2013), the report establishes that filmmaking is a gruesome process, one that has very dark spaces in between, where despair, regret, and a complete lack of freedom dominate the industry.
The Process of Filmmaking
Filmmaking is a complex process, one that has several discreet stages that travel from having an idea to initial storytelling, then commissioning, screenwriting, casting of the participants, shooting, recording sound, and then other element of pre-production before moving to post-production. In all of these processes and stages, filmmakers must constantly engage different perspectives including that of the story, the audience, the industry, and a combination of all of these elements. None of these processes are cast on stone. They vary as a result of several factors such as production budget, industry, influence of an industry, country of origin, intentions, purpose, and so on. One of the most important elements in filmmaking is identifying the audience and the target market. These elements are also significantly influenced by the industry they are a part of, for example, Sunset Blvd. (1950) was largely influenced by Hollywood and all of the issues around the star-studded industry that has defined global filmmaking. Studies identify Hollywood as a critical factor in defining the American filmmaking industry, a concept that is largely explored in Sunset Blvd. Filmmaking, and all of the complex processes therein, are described in Sunset Blvd.
Billy Wilder’s Sunset Boulevard (1950) depicts filmmaking as a culture and a way of life for many people in the Hollywood scene including the process and the expectations from the entire industry. In the film, the story is about a washed-up Hollywood star, Norma Desmond, as she battles with her fall from fame. The societal expectations and the film industry demands force her to live in a fantasy world, where she has a complicated relationship with a film writer, leading to the latter’s death. The film sheds a lot of light on the Hollywood scene and the American film industry in general, revealing the truth about the glitz and glamour, and fake lifestyle of those who are major players in it. Norma Desmond is a critical part of the Hollywood star system. She is also a victim. From the setting of Sunset Boulevard, it is clear that she sees herself as a great star in line with how the filmmaking process, the film industry, and Hollywood system has made her. As she watches herself both on the screen and from the hundreds of pictures of herself in her disintegrating mansion, she does not realize that she has fallen from stardom, a characteristic feature of the film industry, particularly the Hollywood system of creating and destroying stars.
In Matt Johnson’s The Dirties (2013), the processes involved in filmmaking are also largely explored. The film, however, provides a different perspective because the filmmakers do not have any ties to a thriving industry but are rather independent of the expectations that other filmmakers, such as those in Sunset Blvd. (1950) are subject to. In the former film, the filmmaker is more independent and not under the limitations or constraints of the film industry. The main characters Matt and Owen document the life of bullies and the revenge plan for two victimized students. While the movie is somewhat dark, it also shows the independence of the film world beyond those constrained by industry standards. Matt sinks into depression and proceeds to cry for help even though nobody notices. He asks embers of the student body about the process for rectifying instances of bullying. There are no avenues for getting help. In the process, the dark side of the filmmaking industry emerge as the bullying persists. The audience is treated to a classic case of making of a culprit from a victim. Matt and Owen’s exposure to bullying hardens them, strengthens their will for revenge, and opens them up to a dark side that they willingly explore. In the filmmaking experience, the daily stresses of writing, editing, and the constant ridicule from their audience get to them. Matt chooses to fight back, despite sinking into a hole of depression. Characteristically, the entire time, Owen has been a part of Matt’s journey without realizing how deteriorated the latter’s mental state has gone, until it is too late.
Both of these films not only showcase the trials, losses, and issues that filmmaking exposes filmmakers to but also reveal just how personal the entire process is to the involved parties. For example, in The Dirties (2013), we see one of the main character battling depression caused by bullying and countless hours spent on the moviemaking project. A similar situation is seen where Norma Desmond in Sunset Boulevard (1950) is presented as delusional. From a filmmaking point of view, the process is brought out as consuming and one that brings unsurmountable losses to the filmmakers. Similar to Stanitzek’s findings, filmmaking is seen as a recurring problem even post-production where complexities of crafting a good title emerge. At some point, Matt and Owen decide to redo their film and label it The Dirties II, to show complexities that are present in title sequencing. Another similarity that is constant in the filmmaking industry is the desire for the spotlight. Norman Desmond is always looking for that perfect close-up similar to Matt and Owen’s obsession to keep on shooting even where other actions are required.
Film Style and Mode of Production
Sunset Boulevard (1950) is a film noir. The film benefits a lot from stylish lighting. The idea behind the film was to have a film telling the screen story in a way that does not stand out separately from the main theme. The film uses a sunny and contemporary setting that is unique to the Hollywood scene. However, this is in contrast with the shadow-filled decrepit gothic house that belongs to Norma Desmond. The contrast aims at adding to the notion of a faded movie star living in a different world than what she was used to, in a way that is suggestive of a person closed off from reality. In the noir, there is a scene where Desmond is being arrested for murder but her major concern is preening for a camera in order to document the experience in a way that captures her close-up.
In the same film, Joe Gillis’ world is different as a struggling screenwriter, a common characteristics for people in filmmaking who do not make part of the stardom. His world is presented differently through a documentary-like setting. Joe Gillis’s world provides an effective contrast to the exotic locale that defines the secluded and shadowed estate that Desmond lives in. The latter creates a suffocating atmosphere achieve perfectly through dim lighting and effectively taken shots. Deep-focus shots maintain the vast spaces of the house in sharp view. Sunset Boulevard was filmed as a classic. It represented the Hollywood culture, was historical in its style, and the aesthetics were significant to the period. Even with a popular color picture industry, the film still chose black and white cinematography to further augment its dark theme.
The Dirties, on the other hand has a number of sloppy themes. To attain all of these, the director employs a mockumentary style and a hint of dark humor to tell its story. To revenge against bullying, the main characters conceive to film in a violent fantasy-like style. To achieve realism in execution, the film used a documentary structure, imperfect shots, off-timed merging between scenes, and natural lighting in almost every shot. The use of hidden cameras also serves well to bring out a documentary-fiction style that is able to tell the story more appropriately.
The Dirties also has elements of an indie film. The film was made without the backing of a major studio and excessively big production. Aspects of the film reveal just how low budget the film was including the lighting, sound, use of camera angles, post-production and other notable elements. The film is in contract with the Sunset Boulevard on the basis of its theme, the production style, and the mode of production. The film reveals some form of tension between the mainstream Hollywood-based films and the simple yet effective style of an independent film. Ideally, the two styles are incomparable. In the creation and production of The Dirties, it is clear that there was a divergence from Hollywood-themed and other mainstream ideas that confine artists, directors, actors, and screenwriters, among others to specific unwritten rules and conventions. The film, as identified by Newman, benefits from its use of an indie style through alterity that acts as a counter-hegemonic agent and a sustenance that balances social class divisions. Indie film presents itself as a sophisticated and artistic form of cinema in comparison to mainstream and Hollywood filmmaking. Independent filmmaking has the ability to be innovative, to think on the fly, and not to remain constrained to mainstream ideas or rules. This is evidenced by the use of dark humor, sensitive social issues, and a documentary-fiction hybrid style to address issues that many mainstream filmmakers would not find profitable enough to use for Hollywood movies.
Comparative Analysis of the Styles, Intentions, and Outcomes
In redefining the Hollywood scene, Schatz found that movies made past the World War II period were more entrenched to the studio system and focused on innovative ways to capture the attention of an audience. Sunset Boulevard was among the last classical movies made in 1950, with the main intention being to redesign the mainstream movie market to newer standards. Indie filmmaking followed in the same footsteps, as filmmakers found new ways to tell their stories without being exposed to limitations from the mainstream industry and having to downsize their ideas in order to comply with the ideas of the sponsoring studios. From The Dirties, Matt Johnson shows how filmmaking can create cinema that relates to real life issues using a real life point of view that is in contrast to the well scripted mainstream strategy. Overall, the two case studies indicate that the filmmaking industry has more complex features than meets the eye, including styles used, production systems, themes, ideas, technical issues, and so on.
Conclusion
Filmmaking is depicted as a rigid style that leads to personal problems once the lights are off. This is especially so for the film Sunset Boulevard that features a washed up star unaware of the fact that her past is now gone. The rigidity of the Hollywood scene is also revealed through the independent style in The Dirties, a film talking about a social issue unique to the American society. In general, the film industry is one that cannot be defined in one umbrella term because filmmaking is a constantly evolving field. However, it is clear that the film industry and the filmmaking concept influence the direction of cinema in more ways than one.
Bibliography
Balio, Tino. “Selling stars: The economic imperative.” The Classic Hollywood
Reader (2012): 209-226.
Hight, Craig. “Making-of documentaries on DVD: The Lord of the Rings trilogy and
special editions.” The Velvet Light Trap 56, no. 1 (2005): 4-17.
Gray, Jonathan. “From Spoilers to Spinoffs: A Theory of Paratexts.” Show Sold
Separately: Promos, Spoilers, and Other Media Paratexts: 23-46.
Newman, Michael Z. Indie: an American film culture. Columbia University Press, 2011.
Stanitzek, Georg. “Reading the title sequence (Vorspann, Générique).” Cinema
Journal (2009): 44-58.
Schatz, Thomas. “The New Hollywood.” Hollywood: Critical Concepts in Media and
Cultural Studies (1993): 285-314.
Exploration of Parenting Styles in African American Community
Exploration of Parenting Styles in African American Community
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Abstract
Culture and social factors have been suggested to influence parenting styles. However, the existing knowledge on the link between socioeconomic status and parenting has been constricted in scope. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate how culture and socioeconomic status influence African American parenting styles. The objectives of the study were to determine the parenting style of African American parents, to explore how social class affects parenting, and to explore whether there exist differences between African American and White community parenting styles. A literature-based research design was applied in the study. The findings indicated that; authoritarian parenting style has been associated with African Americans but authoritative and democratic approaches have been observed, African American parenting styles vary with social class with low-class parents demonstrating more control and African American parenting style differ due to cultural differences. The results demonstrate that underlying cultural and socioeconomic factors influence parenting in African American communities.
Introduction
Background of the Study
Researchers indicate that there exist at least two broad kinds of parenting which include labeled parental support and parental control. The parental support dimension relates to the affective nature of the relationship between the parent and the child which is indicated by showing emotional availability, involvement, acceptance, responsivity, and warmth. On the other hand, the control dimension has been associated with positive development results in children. The control dimension is comprised of two sub-divisions including psychological and behavioral control (Kuppens & Ceulemans, 2019). According to Shek et al. (2018), behavioral control is the state in which the parents utilize explicit control approaches for instance monitoring the activities of their children and their whereabouts as well as applying rules and restrictions as a way of managing the behaviors of their children. In contrast, psychological control refers to the implicit manipulation of the behavior of children by regulating their emotions, feelings, and thoughts.
Parenting is paramount to nurturing quality interactions between the parent and the child (Calik et al., 2015). According to Doinita & Maria (2015), parenting is the behavior that parents choose to use in the care, raising, and education of their children. In contrast, parenting styles are termed as the psycho-social structures that involve the tactics that families utilize in the raising of their children are molded by the parents’ behaviors, culture, children, and patterns of behavior that their parents acquired from their families (Calik et al., 2015). According to Shahsavari (2012), parenting styles can be impacted by different factors including social, cultural, economic political, and other factors. Attitudes, behavior, and beliefs of the parents which are comprised in a parenting style are very essential factors in the development of the moral character and stability characteristics of the child. Psychologist Diana Baumrind conducted a study and discovered the different styles of parenting including authoritarian parenting, permissive parenting, authoritative parenting and uninvolved parenting (Baumrind, 1966).
Statement of the Problem
According to Shahsavari (2012), culture and social factors affect parenting styles. (Roubinov & Boyce, 2017) also indicate that parenting is highly affected by and situated within the wider social ecology in which it occurs for example, the socioeconomic environment. According to the authors, the existing research on the connection between socioeconomic position and parenting has been extensive but its scope has been narrow with the majority of the researchers focusing on how socioeconomic status affects the development of children. This research aims to fill this gap by exploring whether the parenting style of African American parents varies with social class. On the other hand, culture has been suggested to have an association with parenting, and different parenting styles are associated with different cultures (Smetana, 2017). This research aims to add more knowledge to this scope of knowledge by exploring the parenting style differences between African American and White parents.
Research Questions
The aim of this descriptive research is to explore the parenting style differences between African American and White parents. Additionally, the study aims to explore whether parenting styles in African American settings vary with social status. To fulfill these aims, the following research questions will guide the research.
Which parenting style represents the African American Parenting approach?
What is the Influence of social class on African American parenting style?
What is the difference between African American and White parenting styles?
Literature Review
The literature review section presents the review of literature that relates to the topic of the study.
Parenting Styles
Psychologist Diana Baumrind is considered the pioneer of the research regarding parenting styles. She established a typology with four parenting styles to define the differences in normal parenting behaviors. These types include authoritarian parenting, authoritative parenting, permissive parenting, and uninvolved parenting (Baumrind, 1966). Each strategy is differentiated along two factors including responsiveness and demandingness. Responsiveness is the concept that stresses the extent of regard provided to the wants and needs of the child while demandingness is the extent to which boundaries are established and demands are made.
Authoritarian Parenting
This is a parenting style that is regarded as extremely strict and which demands unquestionable obedience and exerts excessive control over children. Authoritarian parents are perceived to lack responsiveness and warmth. Their approach of control entails threats, guilt induction, coercion, punishment, love withdrawal among other practices. This parenting style is associated with numerous externalizing and internalizing issues for both boys and girls for example kids who experience perfectionistic pressures from their parents tend to be more prone to elevated levels of perfectionism, critical attitude, rigidity, and anxiety. Such children also report increased levels of internalizing problems and reduced levels of life satisfaction (Taylor et al., 2011).
Authoritative Parenting
Authoritative parents make reasonable demands to their children and they are also highly responsive. They possess high expectations and they establish basic limits while listening to and validating children and making sure that they have the necessary support and guidance for success and being independent. Discipline is applied fairly by these parents and they discuss the reasoning for the decisions related to discipline as well as how to adjust behavior in the future. They appreciate the rights of their children as well as individual differences between them. Authoritative parents continually convey caring, warmth and love to their children. Research indicates that children who are raised based on authoritative parenting have higher chances of becoming independent, socially accepted, academically successful, self-reliant, and have happier dispositions. Even though this approach has been considered to result in the best outcomes, potential negative impacts may be possible and they need to be comprehended and countered. For example, some authoritative parents place additional demands on people at home and consider differences among siblings during parenting (Taylor et al., 2011).
Permissive Parenting
Permissive parents are characterized by providing their children with few to no commands. They do not limit the behavior of their children but rather spoil and coddle them. Children in a household with permissive parents can be regarded as co-owners of the house since they have no responsibility as far as rules go (Howenstein et al., 2015).
Neglectful Parenting Style
Neglectful parenting is an approach that is characterized by little warmth and low control and it defines parents who are emotionally disconnected. These parents are commonly not responsive and they are often uninvolved in the lives of their children. According to Howenstein et al. (2015), these parents do not volunteer to be studied which indicates that existing research on this style of parenting has been minimal.
Parenting Style Description
Authoritarian Low parenting responsiveness, high parental demand, unquestioning obedience, clear parenting authority, punitive tactics
Authoritative Parental responsiveness is high, parental demand is high, reasoning or induction, warmth, and involvement, demographic participation
Permissive Parental responsiveness is high, parental demand is low, acceptance of the decisions of the child is common, misbehavior of the child is ignored
Neglecting Parental responsiveness and demand are low
Table SEQ Table * ARABIC 1: A Summary of Parenting Styles
Socio-economic Status and Parenting
Socio-economic status is a multifaceted concept which needs to be defined for this study’s purpose. The measures of socioeconomic status entail the social indicators that define rank or positioning in terms of class. On the other hand, economic factors are related to the factors that are resource or material-related for instance the income of the parents.
Empirical studies have indicated that there are associations between socio-economic status and parenting practices. According to Roubinov & Boyce (2017), parenting within families that are having low socioeconomic status has been observed to be harsher and more disciplinary when compared to higher socio-economic status family settings. Additionally, the low SES environment has demonstrated an elevated level of chaos and more instability in daily family routines.
This source was essential in this study since it established parenting as a construct that is complex and multiply determined and its variability across the slope of socio-economic status. Furthermore the sources demonstrated the presence of different variables and provided figure 1 to help explain the nature of the association between socioeconomic status and parenting.
Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 1: Factors Explaining the Association between SES and Parenting
Source: (Roubinov & Boyce, 2017)
Culture is a factor that has a substantial role in defining the value and meaning of parenting approaches. According to Sherman & Harris (2012), differences in culture are clearly demonstrated through interactions can be observed through interactions between parents and children and with institutional authority figures on their children’s behalf. (Shechory-Bitton et al., 2015) indicate that there is an agreement that culture impacts parenting approaches since parents raise children based on principles and norms validated in their culture. For African American parents, transmitting cultural values and norms awareness is integrated into parenting where the upbringing of a child is modeled by the removal of systems of support through slavery experience, Jim Crow laws, and the recent systems of racism and discrimination. Additionally, corporal punishment has been applied as a strategy to control and contain children’s behavior and also that of the youth. The utilization of physical punishment in African American settings can be understood only when historical and psychological factors that affect family practices are appreciated (Thomas, 2017). The sources are essential in the study since they try to demonstrate that culture plays a role in the parental practices demonstrated by parents.
The model by Roubinov & Boyce (2017) indicates that parents in a higher SES have more capital which can contribute to the children’s higher-order development results while those in the lower SES households have to attend to more fundamental pressing family needs. More pay and education status can also mean higher social capital that affects parenting strategies indirectly through education and occupation opportunities. Households that are economically disadvantaged have smaller amount resources to spend for their children and spending time in various jobs means it is tough to devote time to their children (Roubinov & Boyce, 2017). According to Peoples (2016), social class has an influence on many facets of life in the U.S with parenting being one of them. The author further indicates that on a basic level, lower and working-class parents place more value on conformity and they expect their children to respect authority with practices such as talking back being discouraged while communication and negotiation are expected. In working-class settings, parents tend to be more likely to apply an authoritarian approach to parenting in contrast to upper-class parents since working-class parents value conformity rather than self-direction. The sources are very useful in the study since they illustrate how different socio-economic factors such as social class influence parenting approach.
Bandura’s self-efficacy theory
The self-efficacy theory was developed as part of the social learning theory that was published in 1977 by Bandura. The origins of the social learning theory started in the 1930s at Yale Institute of Human Relations under the leadership of May and Hull (Pajares, 2004). Bandura joined Stanford university’s faculty as a professor where his initial study focused on the social monitoring of human action, motivation, and thought. The research on children’s development of self-regulatory abilities began in the 1960s. The social learning theory elevated the interest in social learning and psychological modeling and Bandura’ developed the theory of social cognitive theory of the functioning of humans which focused on cognitive, self-regulatory, vicarious, and self-reflective processes of adaptation and change (Bandura, 1986). He later extended this theory by centering on the self-efficacy belief system in 1997.
The term self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in their ability to perform a provided task successfully. This can be in the manner in which a person may behave, demonstrating whether they try a task, the amount of effort they direct to the task, and how long they persist when they encounter difficulties and aversive experiences. Bandura created the concept of self-efficacy after the establishment of Social Cognitive Theory (SCT ) which provides a clarification for the performance of specific tasks on the reciprocity of different factors for instance personal factors, environmental events, and behavior. (Bandura and Adams, 1977) indicate that people draw on four variables to evaluate their self-efficacy. The four sources are; interpretations of their individual performance (performance achievements) for instance successful performances have the probability of raising self-efficacy and vice versa, their own capabilities by observing others perform the task (vicarious experience), their reaction to social persuasion (verbal persuasion) and their psychological and emotional situation (psychological states) for example happiness and confidence have the capability to instill a higher self-efficacy as compared to fear and anxiety.
Based on Bandura’s model, parenting self-efficacy (PSE) can be termed as the confidence of the parent or caregiver in their capability to raise children successfully. It entails both the strength and belief and an understanding of capability grounded on that belief. Parenting self-efficacy is situation-specific and varies according to the task and context. From the model, it can also be postulated that parenting self-efficacy can be a strong predictor of parenting style since perceived parental efficacy has been regarded as a motor for adequate parental practices de (Montigny & Lacharité, 2005). From the model, it can also be postulated that social factors affect parenting practices based on the verbal persuasion or social persuasion source of interpretation of self-efficacy.
Methods
Research Method and Design
The most suitable research approach utilized in the study was qualitative. This approach was the most suitable because it gives the researcher a chance to; utilize multiple sources of data, analyze the data inductively and interpret the findings in a subjective manner (Shakouri, 2014). This approach was also applicable since it allowed the researcher to extract detailed information from multiple secondary sources of data. Therefore, the qualitative approach made it easier to compare and contrast data acquired from different sources and interpret it subjectively in order to address the research questions that directed the study.
A literature-based design was applied in the study. According to Newman and Gough (2020), this design can be utilized as a methodology by researchers to base their arguments on what they already know and what they do not know about the phenomenon under study. Additionally, this design was ideal since it allows researchers to develop conceptual models (Snyder, 2019). This allowed the researcher to establish a model that effectively demonstrates how culture and socioeconomic factors associate with parenting.
Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
A search on reputable databases such as ProQuest, Science Direct, EbsoHost, Sage databases among others was conducted systematically to identify publications that were most relevant to the research topic. Such terms such as “social status and parenting styles”, African American and parenting style” “culture and parenting style” were used in the systematic search. An inclusion and exclusion criteria were established to ensure that only the most relevant and credible sources were applied in the data analysis process. The inclusion criteria allowed for the inclusion of publications that had up-to-date information and that only peer-reviewed publications were utilized. The exclusion criteria allowed for the exclusion of blogs, newspapers, podcasts which are not considered reliable sources of academic information.
Data Analysis
Thematic and content analysis of secondary data were applied in the research. Thematic analysis was done first to allow the assembly of evidence obtained from multiple sources of data. This approach of data analysis concentrates on patterns that lead to the identification of major themes. Content analysis was then applied to allow the researcher to familiarize with the data and critically evaluate major themes obtained from thematic analysis and interpret these themes to address the research questions.
Limitations of the Study
The main methodological limitations of the study are the biases of those in power and publications used may not be representative of the wider population. In the review of secondary data, there can be the possibility of biases of those in power which can be present when the researchers limit what they can find out. Additionally, the publications obtained may not be representative of the general population majorly when older documents are used. Additionally, some publications may not be available in databases utilized by the researcher. to ensure the validity of the secondary sources, the researcher reviewed the author, the approach of data collection used, and the references used in the publications. The researcher ensured that publications that were authored by experts in the field of parenting, publications that utilized credible sources, and those that explained the validity of their data were utilized.
Findings
Introduction
The primary aim of the research was to explore whether the type of parenting style that represents African Americans. The study applied secondary data acquired from publications. This section presents the findings of the study which were guided by the following research questions.
Which parenting style represents the African American Parenting approach?
What is the Influence of social class on African American parenting style?
What is the difference between African American and White parenting styles?
RQ1: Which parenting style represents the African American Parenting approach?
Based on the review of existing literature, one theme that addressed the first research question which sought to determine whether African American communities are characterized by a specific parenting style was evident. This theme is authoritarian parenting
Theme 1: Authoritarian Parenting
Several publications suggested that the authoritarian parenting style is common in African American community. (Watkins-Lewis & Hamre, 2012) indicate that parents in the African American community have the belief that strict control leads to increased trust in adults and children social maturity which will ultimately safeguard children against dangers and enhance their socio-emotional wellbeing. This finding is supported by Spigner (2011) who indicates that the cultural background of African Americans has been evidenced to influence the parenting approach. When compared to Caucasian parents, African American mothers emphasize respect and compliance and this authoritarian approach has been found to impact children’s outcomes. (Querido et al., 2002) also contribute to this theme by suggesting that African American families have greater importance on shared parenting roles among the members of the community and utilize physical punishment regularly. However, Tamis-LeMonda et al. (2008) point out that democratic and authoritative approaches to parenting are evident in middle-income parents which contradicts the authoritarian characterization of African American parenting.
RQ2: What is the Influence of social class on African American parenting style?
This research question aimed to help the researcher understand whether parenting style differences exist between different social classes in African American communities. One theme which is the impact of socioeconomic factors on parenting was obtained.
Theme 1: Impact of Socioeconomic Factors on Parenting
Reviewed publications indicated that there are different parenting styles in the different African American social classes. (Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2008) notes that elevated levels of control, physical discipline, and intrusiveness in African American parents have been grounded on the experiences of families that are associated with low income and less education. The publication further suggests that middle-class African Americans are more educated and they demonstrate less control when compared to their lower-class counterparts. This finding was consistent with the finding from Robinson & Harris (2013) which indicated that parents in higher social class do not dedicate more attention to raising obedient children and they depend more on reasoning, psychological techniques, and reasoning when it comes to discipline.
RQ3: What is the difference between African American and White parenting styles?
Theme 1: Culture and Parenting
Existing literature indicates that there are differences in types of parenting between African American and white parents. The findings indicated that racial differences in parenting with white parents having the tendency to emphasize the happiness and self-esteem of their children while African Americans emphasize more obedience and performance in school. African Americans also consider being a disciplinarian as the major role that parents should play (Coley et al., 2014). The findings were consistent with the results from Taylor et al. (2011) who found that corporal punishments are a typical form of punishment by African American parents when compared with white parents.
Analysis and Discussion
From the reviewed publications, it is evident that all the research questions were addressed. The findings indicated that most studies associate authoritarian forms of punishment with the African American community. However, one finding demonstrated that an authoritative and democratic parenting approach has also been observed among African Americans. This finding can be associated with the findings of the second research question that social status determines the approach of parenting such that African American parents in the low economic class tend to be more controlling as compared to those in the middle and high class. Additionally, the results showed that parenting style differs between races with African American parents emphasizing discipline while the whites emphasizing the happiness of their children. These results can be explained by the claim made by Thomas (2017) that cultural values and norms are integrated into parenting by African American parents and to understand the different practices such as corporal punishment, it is important to appreciate the existing historical factors such as racial inequality and discrimination which influence family practices.
Conclusion
Overall, the research the results of the study indicate that parenting style differs with social status and culture. The research was unique because it provided clear confirmation of the notion that all African American parents demonstrate an authoritarian parenting style. The findings of this study can be utilized by policymakers trying to reduce punishment or corporal form of punishment utilized by African American parents. For their efforts to be effective, they have to appreciate underlying factors such as culture and social status.
Recommendations for Future Research
The findings of the study demonstrated that the parenting style utilized by parents is influenced by culture. However, recent studies exploring this phenomenon have not been sufficient. Considering that no culture is static, researchers can conduct studies in this area to evaluate whether cultural changes through time have had an impact on this association.
Additionally, a lot of studies evaluating parenting differences based on culture have focused on African Americans and European Americans. Therefore, researchers can conduct empirical studies involving African American and other minority group parents for instance Arab Americans and Asian Americans in order to add more knowledge to this area of study.
References
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