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how do we allocate all of the resources available
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Questions
Part One: Question 2
2a. Hayek argues that society is not faced by the economic problem, “how do we allocate all of the resources available” but rather, “how to secure the best use of resources known to any of the members of society, for ends whose relative importance only these individuals know.” Hence, not all resources are quantifiable and no centralized authority should distribute resources, but should protect them for the betterment of the members of the society. Hayek also argues that another economic problem the society faces is “rapid adaptation to changes in the particular circumstances of time and place.” He suggests that this can be solved by decentralization. The decentralized actors need to exploit their local knowledge while also using the local knowledge of others relevant to making these decisions. These decentralized actors need not be concerned with ‘why’ some resources are more or scarce than they were before, they need to be concerned with whether these resources will increase or decrease any further. This can be solved by the price system. Hayek argued that the price system, free markets, coordinated people’s actions remarkably. The market was supposed to be spontaneous without any influences. Hayek states that an economy cannot be organized by a central author since the central authority does not have sufficient knowledge to make the best decisions at any one given time.
2b. According to Rosenberg and Birdzell, the West Grew Rich due to a combination of factors; the expansion of rights of private firms, the development of markets, and competition as an important cause of innovation and growth. The expansion of the rights of the private firms was important because it strengthened substantive freedoms and autonomy that allowed all willing individuals to participate in economic activities CITATION Nat86 l 1033 (Rosenberg and Birdzell). Therefore, this led to social mobility and lowered transaction costs, because private companies and people became the agents of change in economic development. Production and business were relatively free of religious or political control. Competition was important because it aided innovation. Rewards of innovation such as profits and market growth soon became the characteristic of a race. The development of markets played a huge role in allocating resources and determining prices of products, and with this, competition was intensified.
Rosenberg’s and Birdzell’s arguments are consistent with those of Hayek because, the West did not prosper by having a centralized influence governing the market, but by allowing the price system to work freely. In so doing, people’s actions were coordinated, without them realizing it.
Part Two: Question 2
2a. Special interest groups and lobbyists have a huge impact on the costs and benefits of government programs and policies. According to Public Choice theory, government officials and citizens respond to incentives and this encourages an active role of the government in the economy even when government comparative advantage is absent CITATION Ste181 l 1033 (Greenlaw). This makes the government particularly receptive to special interest groups. In an elected legislature, the government officials have an incentive to be most open to the needs of the groups that assist to keep them in office, organizations that fund their political campaigns, and groups of people who are more likely than others to influence votes such as seniors or veterans.
The costs of government programs sometimes outweigh the benefits. This may be due to the actions of special interest groups that impose costs directly on the general public or due to the fact that special interest groups may rally government to pursue social goals rather than economic efficiency. Despite the small numbers in a special interest group, they may pressure legislators to enact policies that do not necessarily benefit the entire society. For instance, legislators may enact and environmental act that pushes for the reduction of air pollution from manufacturing companies that will cost 10 companies $3 million each, for a total cost of $30 million. However, the social benefits from enacting this law will provide a benefit of $10 for each person in the nation, totaling to approximately $3 trillion. Despite the benefits of the act being higher than the costs accrued, the 10 manufacturing companies are likely to lobby vehemently to avoid paying the $3 million. The public is therefore going to face negative environmental externalities due to the lobbying.
2b. Richard Epstein argues that the main purposes of a Constitution is to constrain the misconduct of the sovereign because government power, (especially local governments’) if unchecked, can become monopolistic. He argues that individual rights should be directly protected and the ordinary rights of citizens and minorities should receive much attention.
In his view, the three possible limitations on sovereignty are federalism, separation of powers, and entrenched individual rights. Federalism prevents the threat monopolistic sovereignty since individual states compete with each other for businesses, residents, and tax revenue (Epstein 157). This competition limits the states’ capacity for the disastrous forms of expropriation that might otherwise occur. Separation of powers, that is the division of power at all levels of government, with each division keeping each other in check, is the second restraint on sovereignty. The third limit on the sovereignty is entrenched rights. By directly protecting individual rights, citizens are guarded from governmental abuse.
Works Cited
BIBLIOGRAPHY Epstein, Richard A. “Self-Interest and the Constitution.” Chicago Unbound (1987): 153-161. Web.
Greenlaw, Steven E. Principles of Economics. Houston: OpenStax, 2018. Print.
Rosenberg, Nathan and L E Birdzell. How the West grew rich : the economic transformation of the industrial world. New York: Basic Books, 1986. Print.
How do homosexuals who cannot get an identity get along in Chinese society
How do homosexuals who cannot get an identity get along in Chinese society?
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How do homosexuals who cannot get an identity get along in Chinese society?
Introduction
Background of the study
China considered consensual sexual acts between people of the same sex as hooliganism and was punishable by imprisonment or extreme execution. However, in 1997, homosexuality was decriminalized and removed from the list of psychiatric disorders in 2001. It was considered an act against human nature; hence, it was a crime. Since the decriminalization and delisting of homosexuality, individuals still face discrimination in healthcare, employment, and society, making the individuals fail to talk to their families about being gay. Therefore, the people lack social identity, which is essential in making people have a group to gain a sense of belonging in the social world. Identity shapes how people feel about themselves and how they live with other people. Therefore, it determines the types of connections and relationships with the society that individuals would have and can create within an environment. The created negativity of homosexuals within the society made it difficult for them to coexist and get along in Chinese society.
Rationale
Homosexuals have become one of the vulnerable groups in China due to the perception that was created of homosexuality being a crime. Therefore, Chinese society has not fully accepted the practice within its environment; hence, individuals fail to create an identity. According to Williams (2020), China has had the Lunar New Year where family and friends gather together to strengthen their bonds and have a good time. During these celebrations, gays hide their identities due to the fear of being treated differently by others. This is because same-sex marriage is not recognized within the Chinese law; hence, people struggle for acceptance, especially among close family and friends with traditional expectations. According to Xie &Peng (2018), 78.53% have conservative views about homosexuality in China because they feel it is wrong. Therefore, the study aims to find how homosexuals get along within Chinese society to define ways to improve their status.
Research Questions
How does the law view Homosexuality issues?
What are the factors that influence homosexual identity matters within Chinese society?
What actions can be taken to reduce the impact of the negative perceptions towards homosexuality in the environment?
Literature Review
Law influence on homosexuality influence
China laws have been had on homosexuals in the country due to the country considered it as hooliganism; hence, individuals were scared to reveal their identity. Homosexual men were stigmatized, denounced, imprisoned, or subjected to moral and often extra-legal sanctions. According to the traditional laws, a man was not supposed to get a sexual engagement with another as it was against the nature of individuals. According to the law Qing law, the law should be open-minded and flexible to accommodate different identities within a region it governs. It introduced two special devices, including catch-all provisions and the analogy required for colorably immoral and punishable by law. To support the traditional law, the criminal law in 1954 stated that hooligans who fail to engage in honest work or disrupt public order are sentenced to up to 5 years of fixed-term imprisonment, death, or life imprisonment. Since homosexuality was considered hooliganism, the law applied to them. According to Article 106 of Chinese criminal law, homosexual men were arrested due to the prohibitions against hooliganism.
Perceptions on homosexuality
Perceptions of homosexuality are formed based on the traditional norms and beliefs that guide people within the society. According to Hu & Wang (2013), middle-aged adults, gay and bisexual men who lived with their parents, were found to be psychologically vulnerable hence with higher levels of homophobia. According to the Confucian notion of filial piety, homosexual children cannot fulfill their parents’ duty unless they are in a heterosexual marriage. Therefore, they are considered weaklings, less able to fulfill their responsibilities and a group that is not accepted. China has a strong belief in the Confucian theories, believing that each idea mentioned is accurate and tends to act as they say. Therefore, the people in the society create a perception towards the individuals making it difficult to coexist in the society.
Methodology
Research Design
The research design refers to integrating components of a study to answer the research question coherently and logically. The study will apply a qualitative approach to understand the cultures of Chinese that influence homosexuals and the strategies they put in place to get along in the environment. The study employed the ethnographic research method that emphasizes the study of phenomena within its culture. This is through a sense approaching the observed activities and behaviours of the individuals focused on. The qualitative approach makes it possible to understand attitudes and incorporates human experience, making it convenient for the study. Understanding the behaviour and life of homosexuals is possible through the understanding of the cultures and people’s attitudes towards them.
Data Collection method
Data were collected through observation of the ways of living of the homosexual fraternity and other people’s attitudes towards them. It also applies interviews while considering the homosexual group to understand their ways of living in a society that critiques their actions. The combination of the observation and interview provided detailed information about the group and their relations with other people within the environment.
Population and Sample
The study considered the homosexuality group within China and focused on interviewing the leaders of Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT). The interview involved two individuals within the group in getting information on how they cope within the environment and how they get to relate with other people to get along within the society. The observation included their behaviour in social gatherings, the actions of people in relationships while in public and how society treats them. On the other hand, the interview involved questions on the extent of homosexuality acceptance within the Chines society, the factors affecting their wellbeing, the actions undertaken to prevent stigma, and the methods through which the impact can be reduced.
Results and Findings
Law Influence on Homosexuality
The number of homosexual individuals in China is increasing, but many individuals are trying to make it secret. The law of China had criminalized homosexuality, making it difficult for people to speak about their sexuality in public. This is due to the consequences placed for any person to have a relationship with the same sex. In 1997, the government legalized homosexuality, but the marriage of two same-gender individuals has not been legalized. Therefore, the group still faces barriers in their wellbeing as they cannot decide to make their relationships legal as the law fails to recognize the type of marriage. Therefore, the individuals in a relationship try not to show their actions in public nor insinuate any information on lesbianism nor gayism. However, some individuals find it easy to speak about their sexuality on social media and in public but only in civilized environments. The conservative environments do not recognize the changes in people’s behaviors; hence it becomes risky for them to speak about their sexuality. The people would judge them and get humiliation within the society.
From the interview, the respondents identified the problems faced by the homosexual group. There are discriminations in the employment sectors and provision of services for the individual, especially for public institutions. Society has created a perception that fails to accept them among their social groups; hence they have to perform activities among themselves. Even though there are campaigns to identify the rights and powers of homosexuals within society, the perceptions of individuals and the traditional norms make it difficult for them to practice their rights and be protected by law.
Actions to Prevent Stigmatization
The interview showed that the leaders of the campaigns wish that same-sex couples should gain visibility in the eyes of their neighbours and the government alike. It can be done through campaigns and social groups that educate and inform other people on the rights of the individuals and the way other individuals should treat them within the environment. The greatest challenge within the Chinese environment is the cultural norms that prevent people from changing their perceptions and attitudes towards homosexual individuals. The cultural values of the Chinese consider the nature of humans, which, according to them, value heterosexual relationships and that person of the opposite sex should have relationships and not people of same-sex. Therefore, it becomes difficult for people to accept the changes in society. In societies where homosexuality has been accepted, people within the regions have embraced new ways of living and civilized laws, hence flexible embracing changes.
Homosexual individuals living in the same environment with other people also increases the acceptance of the people within the society. This is because they are able to understand their behaviours and see that the individuals live normal lives. It makes it easy for the community to accept the sexual changes that people embrace.
Discussion
According to Chen (2017), the phase of transforming sexuality involves various and conflicting types of sexual identity. The cultural values, sexual cultures, and government laws make it difficult for people to accept the changes that may occur within the environment. Also, the incorporation of laws in the government has had challenges due to the conflicting ideas with the Chinese culture. Its incorporation would mean going against the foundational values of the community; hence its acceptance would be difficult. According to the interview, the conversations with the relevant bodies became futile since both the cultural values and the individual interests are considered. Harmonizing the values has become a challenge as each of the individuals wishes to conserve their norms. However, the suggestion to use agencies and political interventions will help educate individuals to learn to respect other people along with their cultures, drawbacks, and strengths. The agencies would help to speak for homosexuals and help protect their rights and values, enabling them to live in an environment accepting different values, hence accepting them in society. According to Dean (1996), the government and people can work towards enfolding the society to get desired goals.
Homosexuals get along in society by considering the cultural values and norms and preventing their identities from being known by the public. The knowledge of the actions supported and those not supported by cultural values enable them to understand what they can speak about in public and the issues that they cannot mention as t would lead to harsh conditions of social living. Also, homosexuals living together or close to one another refer to themselves as friends or relatives to prevent society from knowing their sexuality. Through these methods, homosexuals can get along with other individuals.
Recommendation
Stigmatization has led to psychological problems among homosexuals; hence involving psychiatric institutions that can accommodate the affected individuals would prevent the impact on society. Therefore, letting the community know about their sexuality would diminish, creating a better environment for their living. Also, encouraging individuals to become more civilized and accept other people’s identities would create a more friendly environment for homosexuals. As Nimmons (1994) argues, acknowledging homosexuality as a part of human conduct help in enhancing the culture as people would understand themselves better. The Chinese laws need to consider the changes that develop within the cultural set up to incorporate the individuals embracing them. The inclusion of laws that support the individuals would make it easier for society to accept the individuals within the society.
Conclusion
Homosexuality in China was considered a crime, and individuals found they were punished through imprisonment or death. However, the government criminalized the act; hence the individuals are free from hiding their identities. However, marriage for homosexuals has not been legalized, making it difficult for them to legalize their relationships. Most of the individuals fail to disclose their sexualities due to the stigmatization received from society. Since it was first considered a crime, people’s perception of homosexuality is negative and convincing individuals to have a good attitude is difficult. Nevertheless, having agencies and working with political leaders would influence people to change their perceptions towards the group. This would create a more friendly environment for homosexuals as they become accepted in the societies.
References
Chen, F. (2017). Gender, sexuality, and social change in contemporary China. Sexuality & Culture, 21(4), 953-975.
Fausto-Sterling, A. (2019). Gender/sex, sexual orientation, and identity are in the body: How did they get there?. The Journal of Sex Research, 56(4-5), 529-555.
Dean, M. (1996). Foucault, government and the enfolding of authority. Foucault and political reason: Liberalism, neo-liberalism and rationalities of government, 209-229
Hu, X., & Wang, Y. (2013). LGB Identity Among Young Chinese: The Influence of Traditional Culture. Journal Of Homosexuality, 60(5), 667-684. https://doi.org/10.1080/00918369.2013.773815
Nimmons, D. (1994). Sex and the Brain. Discover, 15(3), 64-71.
Williams, S. (2020). Why China’s LGBT hide their identities at Lunar New Year. BBC News. Retrieved 31 May 2021, from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-51199309.
Xie, Y., & Peng, M. (2018). Attitudes toward homosexuality in China: Exploring the effects of religion, modernizing factors, and traditional culture. Journal of homosexuality, 65(13), 1758-1787.
Experimental Questions
Experimental Questions
Read the scenario and then select the choice that is the best experimental question for the situation described (according to the criteria below). Note: sometimes two of the choices are accurate, but one is the BETTER choice because it meets all the criteria below better than the other choices do. Highlight your answer choice.
Criteria for writing a behavior analytic experimental question: (and tips for identifying the criteria in the 4 choices provided):
The independent and dependent variables are specified. (First, underline the IV and the DV in each scenario).
An open-ended question is asked such that the answer will provide information about how the independent variable affects the dependent variable (i.e., typically, we do not ask yes/no or either/or questions). For each of the 4 choices, see if the question can be answered by yes or no or by pointing to either this or that.
Include clarifying information (e.g., participants).
Avoid extraneous words. (If it is not “important information” –#3 above—it is probably extraneous information).
Scenarios
Include DV and IV:
Sue, a behavior analyst, is hired to observe an adolescent boy in his inclusive classroom because his teacher reports that he is verbally aggressive toward his peers. Sue conducts a functional assessment (descriptive analysis) and a modified functional analysis. She determines that the behavior is primarily escape-maintained. She decides to implement a DRI procedure whereby reinforcement (minutes that can be “banked” so that the client can go home early) is delivered contingent on verbal compliments and appropriate requests to escape tasks. She takes data on the number of aggressive and appropriate verbal statements as well as on the number of times the boy goes home early.
How will a treatment derived from functional assessment and analysis data affect an adolescent boy’s rate of verbal aggression toward peers?
How will a DRI procedure on appropriate verbal statements affect rates of an adolescent’s escape maintained behavior?
What are the effects of a DRI procedure on both appropriate and aggressive verbal statements?
How will escape from school contingent on appropriate verbal statements affect the rate of aggressive statements?
Ask Open-Ended Questions:
A 40-year-old man with mental retardation lives in a state institution and engages in pica. Institution staff reported an increase in the behavior that appeared to be dangerous. Though the Surgeon General has not stated as much, it is likely that eating tobacco is not healthy. The resident behavior analyst implemented the following treatment. First, she conducted an analog functional analysis that showed cigarette pica was not maintained by social attention and occurred at highest rates when alone. Therefore, a treatment was implemented to reduce access to cigarettes and opportunities for pica during alone time.
How will reduced access to cigarettes affect rates of cigarette pica in a man with mental retardation?
Will a treatment derived from the results of an analog functional analysis decrease cigarette consumption in a man with pica?
Do functional assessment and analyses lead to effective treatment of cigarette pica in a man with mental retardation?
Do antecedent manipulations decrease rates of cigarette pica in one man with mental retardation?
Ask Open-Ended Questions and Include DVs and IVs:
Three 6-year-old children with autism were taught to ask questions of an adult who held a closed box with a toy inside. The treatment package (modeling, prompting, and reinforcement) was evaluated with a multiple baseline design across the three questions forms. The first question, “What’s in the box?” produced the name of the hidden item. The second question, “Can I see [name of item]?” produced a view of the named item, and a third question, “Can I play with [name of item]?” produced the item itself. Within 2 months, all three children were asking these questions with a variety of objects and to multiple adults.
What are the differences in rates of skill acquisition for 3 children with autism across 3 question forms when modeling, prompting, and reinforcement are used to teach a skill?
Can 3 children with autism learn to ask questions “What’s in the box?” “Can I see [name of item]?” and “Can I play with [name of item]?” when a treatment package is implemented?
How will modeling, prompting, and reinforcement affect rates of 3 forms of question asking in 3 children with autism?
What effects do modeling, prompting, and reinforcement have on increasing rates of question asking in 3 children with autism?
Avoid Extraneous Words:
Three 11-year-old boys answer math questions correctly only 50-70% of the time. Their teachers want to find out the best way to increase the rate of accurate problem-solving responses to math problems. They assess the effects of having the boys write answers to math problems versus having the students verbalize the problem aloud before making a written response. Using an A-B-A design, they find that saying the problems aloud before making a written response is more effective in increasing the rate of accurate answers.
Which of the two procedure, writing math problems and verbalizing the problems aloud prior to writing the math problem, will be more effective in increasing 3 students’ percentage of correct answers?
How ill verbalizing a math problem aloud affect rates of correct responding to math problems?
What are the differential effects of writing math problems and verbalizing the problem aloud prior to writing the math problem in increasing 3 students’ percentage of correct answers?
How will verbalizing a math problem affect rates of correct responding to math problems compared to not verbalizing the math problem aloud first?
Include Clarifying Information:
A consultant noticed that a few of his clients seemed to respond differently during academic tasks depending upon the way stimulus preference was determined before beginning the trial/program. He decided to compare methods of stimulus preference assessment for 4 verbal children of pre-school age (Thomas, 2.6 yrs.; Jake, 2.7; Anna, 3; and Julie, 3.3). The three methods of stimulus selection were: a reinforce survey, a verbal stimulus-choice questionnaire, and a pictorial stimulus-choice procedure. Results showed that the verbal and pictorial stimulus-choice assessments accurately identified high- and low-preference categories for 3 or 4 clients. Results of the survey were less likely to identify low-preference categories, and were less likely to correspond with the results of a reinforcer assessment.
What are the differences between a reinforce survey, a verbal stimulus-choice questionnaire, and a pictorial stimulus-choice procedure in determining reinforcers for verbal preschoolers?
What are the differences between a reinforce survey, a verbal stimulus-choice questionnaire, and a pictorial stimulus-choice procedure in determining reinforcers for preschoolers?
What are the differences between a reinforce survey, a verbal stimulus-choice questionnaire, and a pictorial stimulus-choice procedure in determining reinforcers for two verbal 2- and 3-year-olds?
What are the differences between a reinforce survey, a verbal stimulus-choice questionnaire, and a pictorial stimulus-choice procedure in determining reinforcers for two 2- and 3-year-olds?
Avoid Extraneous Words and Include Clarifying Information:
The principal reported that a 14-year-old boy was not performing in math with the same success as he had last year, due to the presence of crickets and taunts about crickets by classmates. The behavior analyst conducted the following assessments: Presentation of three crickets in view while the boy was completing a math worksheet, presentation of a verbal stimulus (e.g., “There are bugs somewhere around here!”) indicating the presence of crickets, and presentation of a verbal stimulus (e.g., “There are no bugs in this room.”) indicating the absence of crickets. Then a program using graduated exposure to the crickets during times where a math worksheet was presented was implemented. After an initial phase of only graduated exposure, a new phase was implemented that included graduated exposure and tokens for completing math problems.
What are the effects of the presence of feared stimuli (crickets), graduated exposure, and contingent rewards on the rate of math calculations of three kinds in a 14-year-old boy with insect phobia?
How does graduated exposure and contingent reward affect the rate of math calculations for a boy with insect phobia?
What are the effects of a treatment package on academic performance of people with insect phobia?
The experiment will seek to determine the effects of multiple interventions on the math performance of an insect phobic.
Include Clarifying Information and Include DV and IV:
Eighteen undergraduate psychology students were taught to respond to verbal instructions and nonverbal instructions, six students under each of 3 schedules of reinforcement: FR-1, FR-2, and FR-3. Tokens were contingent on following verbal instructions and nonverbal instructions, which were presented on colored cards. The study reported that the FR-1 schedule was most effective with verbal instructions and FR-2 and FR-3 schedules were more sensitive to nonverbal instructions.
What are the effects of FR-1, FR-2, and FR-3 schedule of reinforcement on compliance with verbal and nonverbal instructions?
Will FR-1, FR-2, and FR-3 schedules of reinforcement have differential effects on compliance with verbal and nonverbal instructions in college students?
What are the effects of FR-1, FR-2, and FR-3 schedule of reinforcement on compliance of college students with verbal and nonverbal instructions?
How will 3 schedules of reinforcement affect instruction following in college students?