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Abortion. Issues pertaining to life and death have often been compounded by various controversies.

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Abortion

Issues pertaining to life and death have often been compounded by various controversies. This is attributable to the great importance and meaning that is attached to human life. From time immemorial, human life has always been considered to be sacred and very important. Vital values related to protecting it have been ingrained in the societal value system. In this regard, protecting and nurturing human life is generally considered a very a noble task that all humans need to uphold accordingly. Abortion has adverse impacts on the holistic wellbeing of humanity. In essence, this act deprives humans of the opportunity to live and benefit optimally from the goods that nature provides. It is an act that has been perceived differently by varied communities as well as culture. Currently, it has spurred various debates within the public. These basically revolve around the decisions related to opposing and supporting it. It is against this background that this paper provides an in depth analysis of the concept of abortion. To enhance coherence, it begins by detailing an overview of the history of abortion. Then, it proceeds to underscoring the changing attitudes and perceptions towards abortion. Finally, it provides the opposing views towards this concept as well as the ethical, religious and social underpinning.

As indicated earlier, abortion is an issue that has been at the center stage of public ethics for a significant period of time now. Historical evidence indicates that the concept dates back to the times of the early American colonies. The then populations were strongly opposed to abortion and did not support it under any circumstances. In fact, the public considered it a misdemeanor if an individual procured an abortion. A significant percentage of the populations did not only consider the life in the womb to be sacred but they also perceived it to have similar legal rights like the rest of the individuals. The formal efforts to legalize abortion began in 1962, although physicians had previously suggested the issue since 1933. From a religious point of view, Rubin indicates that different religions had varied views regarding the issue of abortion (58). The religions in the ancient Rome and Greece reportedly had the strongest views about abortion. Historical document indicate that the Assyrians did not approve of the process of abortion and forbade their women against procuring it. In contrast, the Jewish religion of Talmud taught that the fetus in the womb could not be likened to an individual. For this reason, it was not entitled to equal rights and therefore abortion was acceptable.

The church of Vienne on the other hand considered abortion to be homicide only after the fetus had been formed. Usually, this occurred during the end of a woman’s first trimester. In the seventeenth century, scientific studies affirmed that during this point in time, the fetus already had al the features of a human being. It is at this point that the Catholic Church forbade abortion and likened it to killing. Further developments in the 1800s confirmed that human life began at the point of fertilization. This culminated in the British government reviewing its position on the stage at which abortion was acceptable. It dropped the relative punishment to the point of fertilization. This marked the beginning of the American states passing their individual laws against abortion. By 1860, Ginsburg cites that close to 85% of the states had passed laws prohibiting abortion (77).

In the early 1900s, there were massive changes in the public perception against abortion. Abortion was now banned only during pregnancy unless it was aimed at saving the life of the woman. The changes in perceptions and views can be attributed to the social conversations as well as the drastic economic changes that were responsible for industrializing the nation. The rising population was having far reaching implications on the quality of life of the entire society. For this reason, it was deemed important to curb population growth in order to enhance the quality of life of the affected populations. Abortion played an important role in helping the society to address the issue of population growth. Abortion was finally legalized in 1973 when the court held the doctor and the woman responsible for making decisions regarding abortion. These two were accorded the right to make abortion elated decisions at any point during pregnancy, in line with the provisions of the right to privacy.

Legalization of abortion triggered various responses from the society. While some approved of the process and considered it fundamental for addressing the economic and social problems that were emanating from incidences of population growth, others considered it wrong because of its tendency to deprive the fetus of life. The religious and philosophical persons were particularly opposed to the practice because they considered it to be morally and spiritually wrong. Yet there is also groups of the population that remained neutral about the issue and do not openly support any sides. There re various reasons that made individuals to be opposed to the practice. These range from the denial of an individual of a right to live to the ethical and moral issues that are attached to the practice.

To begin with, those opposed to the practice believe that life begins at conception. They therefore liken abortion to killing and condemn it as being unacceptable. In this consideration, it is argued that abortion denies an individual a right to live. Life from this point of view is considered to be sacred and one that should be protected and nurtured. Abortion, which is like killing is therefore wrong because it undermines the sanctity of life. The pro life movement also argues that under normal circumstances, any civilized society does not allow a human being to harm or take away the life of another human being unpunished. In this respect, it is contended that there are various laws and policies that have been put in place by the society to punish individuals who harm the life of others. By failing to take in consideration important measures to punish individuals who procure abortion, it is argued that the society has failed dismally to undertake its responsibility with regards to protecting the life of the affected individuals (Epistein and Kobylka 51). For this reason, the pro life group blames the legal structures for exercising laxity with respect to protecting the life of all individuals.

Individuals opposed to abortion argue that adoption is a sustainable and viable option that can be use din the place of abortion. Adoption according to them goes a long way in accomplishing similar results as abortion. Statistical evidence indicates that an estimated one million American families wish to adopt new members in their families. Based on this recognition, the opponents of abortion argue that there is virtually nothing like an unwanted child. They propose that such children be taken up for adoption by willing and able families. Further, Rubin argues that abortion has adverse implications on the overall health of the mother. In this regard, abortion can culminate in medical complications at later stages of life. In addition, it risks the life of the mother because of its increase of the risk associated with ectopic pregnancies. Besides this, the mother risks contacting pelvic inflammatory disease and experiencing miscarriages in future.

Opponents of abortion also indicate that incidences of incest and rape can be effectively addressed using proper medical attention. If addressed in an effective and timely manner, these help in ensuring that the affected woman does not get pregnant. In this regard, it is argued that instead of punishing the perpetrator of the respective crime, the unborn child is forced to bear the consequences and shoulder the crimes of an unpunished individual. This amounts to injustice that should be shunned at all levels. In particular, it is argued that both the mother, doctor and the criminal should be punished for killing. The child is just and should be supported as opposed to being killed. From an ethical point of view, abortion is condemned because of its ability to infringe pain and suffering in the affected individual. Utilitarianism indicates that infringing pain and suffering in the individual is immoral and unacceptable.

Opposed to the preceding arguments are the proponents of abortion who support the practice because of various reasons. Unlike their counterparts, these believe that life does not begin at conception. Morally, they argue that the fetus does not qualify to be a human being and should therefore not be given the rights of a human being. In addition, they argue that since abortion occurs during the very first trimester and when fetuses are not attached to their mothers, they are not part of a mother. The mother therefore has a right to make a decision regarding whether an independent being should exist in her womb or not. The proponents of abortion also argue that the aspect of human life differs considerable from that of personhood. Fertilized eggs are human lives but can not be compared to personhood. Personhood in this regard is far much complex than human life and should be treated as a complex aspect. In this regard, it can not be compared to murder because murder only occurs to complete persons.

The proponents of this practice also believe that it is safe to procure abortion. They base this presumption to statistical evidence that affirms that 88% of women who have abortions in their first trimester have a healthy medical life after the procedure. Relatively, the medical abortions do not have any serious complications that would undermine the ability of a woman to either give birth or become pregnant in future (Ginsburg 69). With regard to rape, the proponents argue that besides physical harm, victims suffer significant negative psychological effects that compromise their quality of life. This can only be reduced and the woman helped to recover through abortion. Further, medical procedures such as morning after pills do not work well during such scenario. They argue that abortion offers the best option in this regard.

Works Cited

Epistein Lee and Kobylka Joseph. The Supreme Court and Legal Change: Abortion and Death Penalty. USA: University of North Carolina Press, 1992. Print.

Ginsburg Faye. Contested Lives: The Abortion Debate in an American Community. California: University Press, 1998. Print.

Rubin Eva. The Abortion Controversy: A Documentary History. USA: Greenwood Press, 1994. Print.

Distinction Between Federal System And Other Systems Of Government

Contents

TOC o “1-3” h z u History of federalism PAGEREF _Toc379628235 h 1United States adoption of federal system PAGEREF _Toc379628236 h 2Pros and cons of federal system in the United States PAGEREF _Toc379628237 h 3

Generally, there are three systems of government that exist; federalism, unitary and confederate. Federalism is a system of government where the nation is organized into more than one level of government. These levels have formal authority which they exercise over the area and people in the area. This is different from a confederate government where there exist a national government that is weak and most power is bestowed upon the components within the country such as the states (Leroy, 2010).It is also different from the unitary government where all the power is found in the central government unlike the confederate systems the federal system, the federal government is the national and central government of the state which is federated. The government as constitutional authority that can not be challenged .It therefore acts for the whole country when it comes to relating and dealing with foreign governments.

The national government is hence the sole possessor of soverenity. The national constitution divides and ensures that constitution powers are distributed between the national government and the resultant political units. Therefore, the citizens in federal systems are subjected to two governments the national or federal and the regional governments. The federal system is therefore seen as a compromise made between extremely concentrated power and a loose confederation for the states that are independent that can be used to govern many people found in a large territory.

History of federalismFederalism is seen to have undergone some evolutions from when it was first adopted to the present day. Between 1789 and 1865 there existed dual federalism whose concept was that the national and state governments formed partnerships that are equal and the difference was their separate and distinct areas of authority. Between 1865 and 1901 there was the development of a second form dual federalism that was characterized by an erratic national government that became more present particularly in areas that had been fully under states. Cooperative federalism was then developed between 1901 and 1960 .This was marked by a lot of cooperation and collaboration in the levels of governments (Boyd, 1997). In 1960 to 1968 another type of federalism was developed ,and was creative federalism which saw a further shift of the relationships of power between the governmental level towards the national government by an expansion of a system of grant-it-aid as well as increased regulation use. Between 1970 and 1997 contemporary federalism was developed characterized by a shift in intergovernmental system of grants. It also saw an increase in lack of funding of federal mandates and concern were raised on the federal regulations as well as the disputes that continued to occur over the federal system nature.

United States adoption of federal systemThe United States was previously under a confederation. However, in the second constitution there was adoption of federalism which has been in existence since then. The reason behind this adoption was the fact that the confederate system became problematic and would eventually lead to bankruptcy as a result of the lack of ability to tax states and cover the debts from civil war. The confederate system was incapable of meeting the demands of the nation that was growing.

Pros and cons of federal system in the United StatesThere are various advantages and disadvantages of adoption of a federal system in United States. Among the advantages are the system allows the government political power which is sufficient. The power is divided and portions are dispersed to various departments. The American citizens have a prospect of taking part in debates that address issues that affect them hence a participatory democracy. In federalism the individual rights of the American citizens are emphasized. It also fosters democracy among the American people since they have a right to debate as well as reinterpret the federalism meaning (Leroy, 2010).

The shortcoming of federalism is that people from small communities are oppressed by the states and through this they violate the individual liberties of people. Federal systems are quite confusing since there are many organs when it comes to the testing of policies. It is also challenging to coordinate activities between the central and state governments.

References

Boyd, E. (1997). American Federalism, 1776 to 1997:Significant Events. Retrieved April 24, 2013 from http://www.cas.umt.edu/polsci/faculty/greene/federalismhistory.htmLeroy, A. W. (2010).The American constitutional system: principal characteristics – federalism. Retrieved April 24, 2013 from http://www.proconservative.net/cunapolsci201partsixb.shtml

Abortion. Annotated Bibliography

Abortion: Annotated Bibliography

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Institution

Abortion

Benson, J. (2005) Evaluating Abortion-care Programs: Old Challenges, New Directions. Studies in Family Planning 36(3). pp 189-202

In this article, Benson evaluates the challenges faced by women in their search for safe abortion and pertinent productive care services especially in the developing world. The study estimates that despite increased prevalence of contraceptive know-how and their availability in the market; approximately 36 million women still undergo abortion in the third world countries. Of all these, it is estimated that about 19million of these abortions are carried out in unhygienic settings and by untrained practitioners and are a big contributor to maternal deaths all over the world. This research points out the need for government, medical professionals as well as non-governmental organizations to work together so as to make these services available and affordable so as to save lives.

Kumar, A., Hessini, L., Mitchell, E. (2009). Conceptualising abortion stigma. Culture, Health and Sexuality 11(6), Pp 625-639

Kumar et al, in this paper, term abortion stigma as a social phenomenon that arises in society and leads to the segregation of women who have undergone abortion and even men who have supported such. It cannot be a universal truth because stigmatization does not occur in all parts of the world. Abortion stigma is more rampant in countries that have laws that prohibit abortion except when it is advices by a medical practitioner. Countries that allow abortion with the healthcare provided by the government have no cases of stigma. This study suggests that society should be enlightened on abortion and countries that prohibit it should be helped to revise and change their health policies so as to save lives.

Healy, J., Otsea, K., Benson,J. (2006). Counting abortion so that abortion counts: indicator for monitoring the availability and use of abortion care services. International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics 95(2) pp 209-220.

In this research paper, Healy et al propose that existence of an urgent need to address abortion and abortion-related health care needs for women so as to reduce maternal mortality. The study says that this can be done by putting up emergency obstetric care centres that can offer safe and legal abortions, address the complications that come by because of an abortion and also offer post-abortion contraception. The therefore proposes that governments and stakeholders in the health sector should assess and analyse how much the society and nation needs the services and hence provide them to those who need them.

Johnston, H., Gallo, M., Benson, J. (2007). Reducing the cost to health systems of unsafe abortion: a comparison of four strategies. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 33(4) pp 250-257

In this paper, Johnston et al proposes strategies that enables policymakers and stakeholders in the healthcare sectors to formulate policies that were feasible and sustainable in providing abortion and post-abortion care. This could be done by equipping health care facilities with the drugs and surgical equipment that are needed through abortion. Doing so would limit the exploitation of women who needed abortion services and also ensure they got the best of what they required.

Grimes. D, Benson.J., Singh. S., et al. (2006). Unsafe abortion: the preventable pandemic. The Lancet, Volume 368(9550) pp 1909-1919

This article terms unsafe abortion as a urgent health care issues that demands the attention of both law makers as well as the health care stakeholders. This is because, when abortions are carried out in the wrong way, there are numerous complications that may arise. These are: excessive bleeding, infections, infertility and in some cases results to death. This therefore can be dealt with if only governments are keen to change laws and policies regarding abortions so as to save women by providing for safe abortions.

Dah. T., Akiode. A., Awah. P., (2011). Introducing Misoprostol for the Treatment of Incomplete Abortion in Nigeria. African Journal of Reproductive Health 15(4) pp 42-50

In this article, Dah et al, point out abortion is a major health problem in Nigeria and other developing countries in Africa due to restrictive laws that prohibit abortion. It also proposes that the government should invest in Post-Abortion Care (PAC) facilities and also seeks to have Misoprostol introduced as treatment for incomplete abortions. This would reduce maternal mortal if the government gave its go ahead in public health care centres.

Calhoun. B., Thorp. J., Carroll. P., (2013). Maternal and Neonatal Health and Abortion. Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons 18(2) pp 42-46.

This paper provides critical information on mortality, stillbirths and preterm births that is essential in putting forth evidence-based public health policies. Such are necessary in advocating for women’s reproductive health worldwide as well as push for legal considerations and interventions. With constant changes in the medical field, it is necessary that governments keep up with them to ensure that they can provide reliable abortion services.

Giubilini A.,Minerva. F., (2011). After-birth abortion: why should the baby live. Journal of Medical Ethics doi10: 1136/medethics-2011-100411

This paper defines after-birth abortion as killing of a new-born and can also be termed as euthanasia in infants. These mostly arise in cases where a child is born with severe abnormalities or disabilities. Philosophers and medics propose this in extreme cases as they view the living of the infant with the ailments or biological defects as unnecessary suffering for the child and also a burden for the parents since in most cases, children with disabilities rarely get adopted.

Gerdts. C., Vohra. D., Ahern. J., (2013). Measuring Unsafe Abortion –Related Mortality: A systematic Review of the Existing Methods. Plosone DOI: 10. 1371/journal.pone.0053346

This article reflects on how huge a burden the issue of unsafe abortion is globally according to statistics reported by the World Health Organisation (WHO). It proposes that countries that report a high number of deaths due to abortion and post abortion complication should be swift to work on its laws and also review the existing methods that women in the country use for abortion. Doing this would go a long way in reducing maternal deaths in those countries.

Koch. E., Aracena. P., Gatica. S., et al, (2012). Fundamental discrepancies in abortion estimates and abortion related mortalities: A re-evaluation of recent studies in Mexico with special reference to the International Classification of Diseases. International Journal of Women’s Health. 2012: 4, pp 613-623.

In this article, Koch et al points out that how challenging it is to evaluate data on abortion in countries where induced abortion is induced abortion is legally restricted as there are no official records on this. This therefore means that very little can be done to propose and implement changes in abortion care provisions in a bid to save the lives of women. This means that the government has to change its policies to be accommodative of the need of abortion in society so as to save lives in future. Having credible information on abortion guides health care givers on the needs that need attention and where so as to reduce maternal deaths.