Recent orders
Using similar theory, framework, and research question but to Federal Senior Executive Service (SES) and African American Men
Using similar theory, framework, and research question but to: Federal Senior Executive Service (SES) and African American Men and women.
William H. M. Etti, Doctoral Student
williametti@aol.com
(Insert code) 3013679284
University of Maryland Eastern Shore
Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333564” Introduction PAGEREF _Toc385333564 h 3
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333565” Background of SES PAGEREF _Toc385333565 h 3
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333566” Problem: Scarce African American men and women SES PAGEREF _Toc385333566 h 4
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333567” Policy on SES PAGEREF _Toc385333567 h 5
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333568” Analysis of policy PAGEREF _Toc385333568 h 6
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333569” Theoretical framework PAGEREF _Toc385333569 h 7
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333570” Research Methodology: qualitative case study research PAGEREF _Toc385333570 h 8
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333571” Leadership theory: Critical Race Theory and Lack of Fit Theory PAGEREF _Toc385333571 h 9
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333572” Leadership style: Transformational Leadership PAGEREF _Toc385333572 h 9
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333573” Research question PAGEREF _Toc385333573 h 10
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333574” Population sample PAGEREF _Toc385333574 h 10
HYPERLINK l “_Toc385333575” References PAGEREF _Toc385333575 h 12
IntroductionThe United States has aspired to be the land where opportunities are plenty and a place where other people are able to come with the hopes of better life and actually get it. It has aspired to provide equality in opportunity such that every child in the land can envision working their way to the pinnacle in the society. These aspects have made the US a melting pot thus attracting the best of brains, skills and experience from all over the world. Therefore, the resulting polyglot society is a great asset to the country since the diverse parts of the country create a better productive force that is far better than any of its parts. As such, it is imperative that as the nation becomes more diverse, the government also reflects the diversity. The Center for American Progress projects that within the 21 century, the nation will have no obvious racial majority (Kohli et al., 2011). According to the US Census Bureau projections, the entire population of the nation will encompass about 54% people of color by the year 2050 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011).
Background of SESSenior Executive Service (SES) was established in 1979 as a position classification akin to ranking system used in the US Armed Forces save for the fact that it is mainly concerned with position classification for the civil service. The origin of diversity demographics sprouts from the fact that the US has for long time attracted people of diverse racial origin and ethnicity since it is attached to the image of a land of equal opportunities and better life. This brand image has led to a collection of diverse pool of social resources in the capital hence bringing diverse cultural capital that is not only reflected in the entire population or demographic landscape but should also be mirrored in the various quarters where these social capital and capital are needed and applied.
Problem: Scarce African American men and women SESBased on Congress findings of 2009, minorities comprised 22.5 per cent of the persons serving at the GS- 15 and GS- 14 ranks and 15.8 per cent of the SES in 2007. In addition, even though the number of SES members went up from 6,110 in the year 2000 to 6,555 in the year 2007, the proportion of African-American men in the SES reduced during the same period by point five percentage from 5.5% down to 5.0%. The same findings indicated that African-American employees represented about 6.1 per cent of employees at the Senior Pay levels alongside 17.8% of the permanent workforce in the Federal government in comparison to about 10.1% African-American employees in the civilian workforce in the 2007 fiscal year. From the data availed by the US Office of Personnel Management for the period lasting 2012 fiscal year, out of the 8,004 total SES members, the number of African men and women in SES were 829 and this represented 10.36% of the total number of SES members (Office of Personnel Management, 2013). As the figure below reveals, the proportion of African-American in SES in 2010 represented 9.3% of the total. This shows that the 2012 figure represented a growth of 1.06% over a period of two years.
563880-622935
Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 1: 2010 SES Memberships by Race/Ethnicity
Policy on SESThe policy initiative on SES is to increase diversity in the Senior Executive Service so that the SES staff reflects diversity reflected across the nation as the number of people from various parts of the globe keeps changing thereby changing the racial and ethnic landscape of the nation. For proper socio-political balance, better management of social resources that have been pooled from various parts of the world, it is also imperative to have a balance in the representation in government bodies such as SES. This diversity should also include the gender factor. The graph below, which is adopted from Office of Personnel Management, shows the gender representation in the SES over the years extending from 2008 to 2012.
Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 2: Gender Representation
The graph shows that while the number of women members in the SES has been increasing slightly over the years, the number male members have sharply stood out as the majority.
Figure SEQ Figure * ARABIC 3: Whites and Blacks in SES
The raw data for the above chart is given below:
Year 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
White 6530 6386 6477 6515 6444
African-American 625 687 752 794 829
Analysis of policyAs the number of African American men and women continues to grow in the general population, it is imperative that this change is also reflected in the SES membership. This approach is essential in ensuring that the SES reflects the diversity and the changing demographic landscape of the nation so that the nation lives to its spirit and objective of a land that provides equal opportunities that are democratically representative.
The Obama administration has been keen on the issue of diversity continually showing interest in improving representativeness of the various groups that form the population of the and this includes the African American men and women. With respect to the time frame within which the policy should last, the policy to balance the membership of SES so that the proportion of African American member SESs reflects the proportion in the entire population should be an endeavor that is taken on a going concern basis. Based on the statistical data from the US Census Bureau, the number of Blacks or African American men and women represented about 13.1% of the entire US population. In contrast, as already seen from the representation in the SES, African American men and women comprised 10.36% of the SES membership during the same fiscal year 2012 (US Census Bureau 2013). This reveals a shortage of about 2.64%. It is therefore proper to increase the number of African American men and women to make the SES reflect the picture in the entire population.
With the above revelation, there should a plan that puts a strong emphasis on enhancing the racial, gender and ethnic balance in the career SES to reflect the nation as it is at different times. Given the findings that have been presented in this policy analysis paper and drawn from federal government sources such as the Office of Personnel Management and the US Census Bureau, priority should be placed on addressing representation of African American men and women in the senior positions in the federal agencies.
Theoretical frameworkCritical Race Theory (CRT) is used in this policy analysis as the main guiding framework. The CRT has various tenets that provide the pillars for supporting the study. The first is that the theory holds racism as an ordinary aspect and not an aberrational aspect the way society views business. Thus racism is viewed as an ordinary everyday experience of the diverse people in the society. Secondly, the CRT holds that the preponderance of white-over-color ascendancy plays an important role with respect to materiality and psychic aspects of the society. Another tenet of the theory is that race and races are just outcomes of social thought and social relations but are not objective or inherent. Lastly, CRT views race and racialization as dynamic and called upon based on diverse factors such as paradigm shift in the needs of the labor market (Delgado et al 2006).
Research Methodology: qualitative case study researchThe research approach to be used in this study is qualitative case study research. Research in management disciplines can be considered as exploratory and conclusive research designs, according to McKay and Marshall (2001). Where the investigator has to gather huge quantities of already available data, assimilate such information available from literature, exploratory research is most suitable, say Saunders et al (2006). The same author points out that an intuitive comprehension of the research subject is a basic necessity for any researcher which can be realized through exploratory research. The advantage of this research is that it helps the researcher gather and understand the actual situation pertaining to the research problem in hand and also develop intuitive understanding of the theories and industry standards and practices associated with the problem. The disadvantage is that the approach is too vast and cannot point to conclusive solutions or recommendations to the problem, according to Saunders et al. (2003). Therefore, this design alone will not be sufficient for any research to be very meaningful. That is why adding cases study on it boosts the validity of the outcome.
The above paragraph implies that the findings from the exploratory research need to be corroborated through much more deeper and pointed research to the specific research situation, which is possible through the conclusive research design, according to Susan (1994) and this design is more comprehensive and structured. Shenton (2004) argues that while exploratory research can help in the formulation of hypotheses, the conclusive research can help in testing these hypotheses to be valid or invalid.
Leadership theory: Critical Race Theory and Lack of Fit TheoryThe leadership theory employed in this policy analysis is the Critical Race Theory and Lack of Fit Theory. According to Delgado et al (2006), Critical Race Theory:
“…It is a collection of activists and scholars interested in studying and transforming the relationship among race, racism, and power. The movement considers many of the same issues that conventional civil rights and ethnic studies discourses take up, but places them in a broader perspective that includes economics, history, context, group- and self-interest, and even feelings and the unconscious. Unlike traditional civil rights, which embraces incrementalism and step-by-step progress, critical race theory questions the very foundations of the liberal order, including equality theory, legal reasoning, Enlightenment rationalism, and neutral principles of constitutional law.” –Delgado et al 2006, p. 1
Lack of Fit Theory is also important for the study and it shall basically provide a reference point for assessing the reasons for scarcity of African Americans in the SES.
Leadership style: Transformational LeadershipIn order for the policy changes to be effective, there are some leadership challenges that have to be overcome. The right leadership qualities and style are needed in order to steer the policy changes to success. With respect to this a leadership style that can propel the policy to success entails one that is flexible enough to accommodate dynamic nature of the demographic landscape, be able to deal with the sensitivity associated with racial and ethnic matters and have the ability to influence everyone toward accepting that the change is needed and necessary. Such is the quality of transformational leadership. A transformational leader will be able approach change with flexibility that is needed hence handle resistance properly.
Research questionThis policy paper addresses three main questions. The first is the question of what causes scarcity of African American men and women in senior level federal government positions in the US. The Lack of Fit Theory is partly consulted to help in exploring the possible answers to the question. This question is essential in exploring and documenting the various factors that lead to discrepancy between the proportion of African Americans in the senior federal government positions and those in the general population. The second question is: how can the representation of African American men and women be increased in SES to reflect the proportion in the US population of African Americans? The second question is important because it will help in exploring the various approaches and alternatives and determine the optimal approaches to reach the desired objective without experiencing a boomerang effect. Lastly, another important question is what factors are essential for achieving the desired representation of African Americans in SES. Through, this last question, it becomes possible to assess the necessary system changers, leadership requirements among other factors that must be cultivated into the policy change efforts.
Population sampleThe sample for the study is drawn from the Department of Health and Human Services and it mainly targets African American male and female member SES. Since the study takes a case study qualitative approach, the sample is a representative of the entire African American pool of workforce in the various departments. The sample is not only supposed to be compared against the rest of the departments but also to be compared with the general SES representation at the national levels.
ReferencesCongress (2009) H.R. 2721 (111th): Senior Executive Service Diversity Assurance Act 111th Congress, 2009–2010. Text as of Jun 04, 2009 (Introduced). https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/111/hr2721/text
Delgado, R., Stefancic, J. & Harris, A. (2006) from Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. New York University Press. http://www.nyupress.org/19309chapt1.php
Kohli, J., Gans, J. & Hairston, J. (2011) A Better, More Diverse Senior Executive Service in 2050: More Representative Leadership Will Improve the Effectiveness and Efficiency of the Federal Government; Center for American Progress
McKay, J. & Marshall, P. (2001). The dual imperatives of action research. Information Technology and People, Vol.14, No.1, pp.48-59.
Saunders, M., Lewis, P. and Thornhill, A. (2006). Research Methods for Business Students, 3rd Ed. London: Prentice Hall. 0273709909, 9780273709909
Shenton, A.K. (2004). Strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research projects. Education for Information, Vol.22, No.1, pp.63-75.
Susan, B. (1994). Research students’ early experiences with the literature review. Studies in Higher Education, Vol.19, No.2, pp.217-236.
U.S. Census Bureau, (2011) “More Working Women Than Men Have College Degrees, Census Bureau Reports,” News release, April 26, 2011, available at http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/education/cb11- 72.html.
U.S. Census Bureau, (2013) “USA Quick Facts from the US Census Bureau” http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/00000.html
A Synagogue Service
A Synagogue Service
The existence of worship and ritual public spaces has been known for a long time. Evidence is obtained from the various temples and alters found in various parts of the world. The ceremonies and prayers, which take place in modern synagogues, use the latest physical structures. The religion of Judaism has a history rich in places that are memorable. In the United States, synagogues are referred to as temples. There are many followers of Judaism, and the number seems to grow at an extremely high rate.
The tabernacle is referred to as a centre whereby, public Jewish rituals took place. It is a structure, which resembles a large tent that existed for forty years in the desert. Furthermore, people used to carry it wherever they went. The menorah is a holy part of the tabernacle that housed the Ark of the Covenant. Only holy people were allowed to enter the menorah. One vital symbol that one cannot fail to notice is the candelabrum, which has seven golden branches. The latter is a symbol that is associated with Judaism (Barry, 2009.56).
Beit Knesset is a Hebrew word that has been translated into Greek to mean synagogue. Another term used to refer to a synagogue is the word ‘House of Assembly’. In a synagogue, various aspects of Jewish life are observed, as it is the centre of their lives. The aspects are spiritual, intellectual or social aspects of life. A synagogue must ensure that it faces the direction where Jerusalem is located. An image of an Ark exists, and it contains the Torah Scrolls. The latter are the Bible’s first five books, and are in a Hebrew script that is hand written. The books are of extreme relevance to followers of this religion, and they are highly regarded. Furthermore, the Torah has been hand written by a scribe. ‘Know before whom you Stand’ (Barry, 2009.67) are Hebrew words that are positioned above the Ark. Moreover, tablets exist on top of the ark and have some inscription of the Ten Commandments. Each of the first words contained in the commandments is found on the inscription. In the synagogue, there is an eternal light that hangs in the front side of the Ark. On the other side, a menorah is visible to all that enter the synagogue. It is a symbol that is found in every synagogue, in the world.
A ‘bimah’ exists at the synagogue’s center, and it is on a platform, which is raised. Also, there is a reading desk where the services instructions are conveyed to the congregation. The person providing the reading from the Torah must ensure that they face the Ark. There is a morning service that takes place on a daily basis. There are men who are in attendance, and they have shawls, which are uniform and similar. Four corners of the shawl used for prayer have fringes. The fringes are of Biblical importance as it is a commandment that the shawls have fringes. It is meant to have divinity purposes that men must always remember.
The seating arrangements in a synagogue dictate that women seat separately from men. There is a gallery located upstairs, and that is where the women are seated. Men are often distracted when they are praying and women are in their presence. In other synagogues that are conservative, women and men seat in the same level. Everyone in the congregation must ensure that they cover their heads, and this does not apply to young girls. There is a dividing structure, which is symbolic in nature. The congregation and the readers have different ways through, which they pray. It can be through singing of traditional melodies, chanting, are quiet recitals. There is no discrimination concerning who has the authority to lead and hold prayers. Any willing and able person can volunteer to lead the congregation in prayers. A rabbi is sometimes in charge of the service. There is a person in charge of sacred music due to their knowledge and voice. The person is known as a ‘cantor’ or a ‘chazzan’.
In a synagogue, there are three times that services are held on a daily basis. During the Sabbath, after the morning service, there is an additional service known as ‘Musaf’. The latter service also takes place during Thursday and Monday mornings. Most times, the prayers are recited in Hebrew, and English is also spoken. The Siddur is a book that contains the prayers that are recited at the synagogue. The prayers have to follow an order set out by the ‘Siddur’. Its history dates back to many years when the ‘Men of Great Assembly’ existed. They were involved in building a synagogue after they came home from exile. There has been integration of melodies and prayers, as this is a process of continuation by the liturgy. Furthermore, it is adapted from music and poetry from medieval Rhineland and Spain (Barry, 2009.84).
During the end and start of service, God is praised by making his attributes known through singing. At every stage, of the service, blessings must be mentioned, and this is vital in the worship. For example, when a fallen star has been witnessed, gratitude has to be expressed. Simple things, which other people might ignore, such as viewing a rainbow are a reason for praising God. Psalms is another aspect of the service whereby, prayers are based on the scripture of Psalms. In Jewish belief, ‘Shema’ is a key aspect and it has to be recited. It is referred as a statement that is vital in Judaism. In the book of Deuteronomy, the Shema recitation is found as well as in the book of Numbers. At night and in the morning the Shema must be recited (Hayes, 2011. 7).
A silent prayer known as the ‘Amidah’ is recited when one is standing. It is meant to ensure that God blesses the person nineteen times and is referred to as a petition. There are various paragraphs that exist, and they have different blessings. The members of the congregation must recite the ‘Amidah’ while the reader chants it. An example of the chant is “holy, holy, holy is the lord of hosts: the whole world is full of his glory” (Hayes, 2011. 9). Every Thursday and Monday, as well as on festivals and the Sabbath, the Torah has to be read. During the additional and morning service, a sermon has to take place. This is also witnessed during festivals, fasts and Sabbaths. Other times, readings are obtained from the ‘Haftarah’ and the Torah. The ‘Musaf’ is a service that is similar to an Amidah. Afterwards, there is a Kaddish, which is known as a prayer of sanctification. It normally takes place when there are recitations and mourning in the synagogue. It is meant to ensure that God’s attributes are celebrated.
At the synagogue, there are hereditary priests that perform a ceremony meant to bring blessings. In Ashkenazi synagogues, during fasts and festivals the ceremony is performed. On the other hand, in Sephardi synagogues, there is a daily occurrence of the ceremony. Priests chant statements that are meant to bless the congregation. Furthermore, they are situated at the Arks front, raised on a platform and are covered with prayer shawls. Lastly, a party is held at the end of service, and this is extremely customary. The congregation takes wine as they bless their Sabbath.
In conclusion, observing the service that occurs at a synagogue is extremely compelling. When compared to the readings provided in class, the observation provides more useful information. This is because one has a personal experience with this religion. Judaism has many rituals that have to be followed, and this enhances ones faith. People tend to follow religions, which are practical, such as Judaism. One hardly hears that people from this religion are involved in crime. The religion is similar to Catholic Christianity in some aspects, but indeed the experience at the synagogue was memorable. Any person who has an interest in religion should take time and visit a synagogue. They will find out how people from other religions carry out their services as compared to theirs.
Work Cited
Barry, Bandstra. Reading the Old Testament: Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, 4th Ed. California: Belmont, 2009.Print.
Hayes, Christine. Judaica Collection. Retrieved from HYPERLINK “http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/” http://www.library.yale.edu/judaica/ on 2011-11-23.
Using relevant examples discuss how issues in the contemporary society have affected the stability of the family
Using relevant examples discuss how issues in the contemporary society have affected the stability of the family
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Introduction
In the recent past, the role of the parent especially the role of the mother has come under very sharp scrutiny and criticism. Today’s generation is not the same as the other generations in terms of behavior, character, morals, technological awareness and exposure. Most people attribute most of these differences to the type of upbringing of today’s generation. Traditionally, a woman was expected to stay at home and take care of her husband and children while the husbands role was to go out and look for means of taking care of his family. With the advancement of the gender equality agenda, women have evolved into two categories of mothers, the “Stay at Home” mothers and the “Working” mothers (Susan Jeanne Douglas , 12). As a result, the topic of whether mothers should stay at home and take care of their children cannot be ignored. The level of education and empowerment of women has seen to it that nowadays, most mothers run the show in boardrooms as well as in the living room. As will be discussed in this essay, mothers should not stay at home and take care of their children.
Increased divorce rates
Divorce has increased substantially. The total divorce rate in most western African countries reaches approximately 20 percent. Concomitant with the increasing divorce rate is the rise in one-parent families, the majority headed by women. Single-parent households, however, also increase because of the growing number of mothers who are single by accident or choice. The degree to which single motherhood by accident is on the increase is not completely clear, because many studies only use formal criteria such as marital status to identify lone mothers. In many Kenyan socierties and communities today, many unmarried mothers are living together with a partner (who may or may not to be the father of the child(ren)), or that single motherhood is only a temporary, transitional stage in the union formation. Many unmarried mothers, in other words, are not necessarily to be considered as lone parents. Single motherhood by choice, more particularly among older, better-educated, working Kenyan women, also seems to be on the rise.
High prevalence of single parenthood
Another factor that is undermining the traditional kinship-based family structures in Africa is the prevalence of single parenthood, particularly among young urban females. As increasing numbers of women have joined the labor force, single and female-headed households have become a discernible pattern on the African social landscape. Although some societies in Kenyan such as Maasai and Turkana communities continue to frown upon women over 30 who are still single, accusing them of prolonging singlehood, this new trend reflects attempts to adapt to secular changes in educational status, employment and occupational mobility, and in some cases, the decline of marriageable men. Many Kenyan unplanned urban settlements like Korogocho and Mathare are populated with unmarried single and poor women who face considerable obstacles in overcoming dislocation, rural-urban migration, and deprivation. Coping with the circumstances of family disruption in most Kenyan families has entailed single-parent families among lower-income groups taking their children to live with relatives, in particular, the children’s grandparents.
Changes in reproductive behaviors
Most (married) couples in Kenya want and have children, but a small number of children, unlike the past. After a strong decline in the 1960s, 1970s and in some countries the 1980s, fertility – measured by the total fertility rate- seems to have stabilized at the end of the 20th century at below-replacement levels.
The HIV/AIDS pandemic in Kenyan families
The effect of HIV/AIDS on family structures and processes that largely depend on the sexual behavior of the population in its childbearing years, are on the rise in Kenya. According to recent media reports, sexual promiscuity in the heterosexual population, in combination with the absence or low prevalence of condom use or other safe sex measures, in Kenyan families boosts the spread of the infection, particularly among the younger adult age groups. In such circumstances, the disease must have disastrous effects on several aspects of family life and family structure on a broad scale. Kenyan households hit by the disease risk a dramatic decrease of their income, either because of sickness or because of the high costs of treatment. The sexual life of the couple risks deterioration. Finally, the family structure is affected: children are removed to other households or are orphaned, and the surviving partner widowed.
The adult infection rate (the percentage prevalence among the population aged 15 to 49) of the pandemic has 8.57 percent in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Challenge of housewives
Housewives today feel a lot of social and pyshological challenges in their families. The housewives feel especially lonely as there is no one they can socialize with at the same level until the time the husband comes back, at the end of the day, too tired to even consider a simple grown up conversation. The children that these mothers go to take care of are very young and their mental capacity cannot be able to reason with the parents. Humans are social beings and if this is taken away from them, they will become lonely. Due to the loneliness and depression, such mothers will not do the best by their children, the reason they left their employment in the first place. With the loss of personal identity comes the loss or the decline of an individual’s self-esteem. Due to this loss, the mother won’t even be able to enjoy the special moments with her children. For those individuals who define themselves by what they do, the decision to stay at home and take care of their children can make them lose their identity .
Gender , Employment Participation and Child raring
The traditional model of Kenyan family organization, based on sexual task segregation, ruled out female occupation even though at all times a substantial, but variable and sometimes minor part of married women did not stay entirely out of the labor market (not to mention unmarried women). The quite inequitable complementarity between a wife looking after the internal affairs of the family and a husband assuring its survival by earning the necessary income outside was culturally – and for a long time also sociologically – defined as balanced. However, today mothers work full time, leaving the children in the hands of care givers. This leads to poor up brining in and child maltreatment. The scenario reflects an extreme form of family instability as children suffer from physical abuse, and sexual abuse.
Changing Community Dimension of Family
The community dimension of marriage is another main feature of African society. In Africa a marriage is never just an affair between two individuals. It is also an alliance between two families. And in a certain sense whole villages or clans are involved. The clan has always had an important say – frequently too important a say – in the acceptance of a marriage partner, precisely because marriage involves the welcoming of a new member into the clan. Africans at times will even say that it is not two individuals but two clans that marry. Today, the effect of western ideas is to reduce this social emphasis in favor of more personalistic concepts. Yet many educated Africans remain sensitive to the possibility that a new emphasis on personal values in marriage – mutual love, personal choice, a desire for self-fulfillment, etc. – is not necessarily in contrast with social values nor should it lead to their exclusion. They are also beginning to realize that many western approaches to marriage are individualistic. The rejection of the broader social commitment that Africans have always connected with marriage covers a hidden and excessive self-concern that can lead in time to a refusal to face up to the demands involved in the mini-society which is the nuclear marriage itself, and to a subsequent collapse of the marriage. A successful marriage always has a social aspect. It always calls for an opening out to others (to one’s spouse and one’s children at the very minimum) and this is possible only in the degree in which individualistic self-love is overcome. Individualism for the African is not a family value and leads to marriage instability and breakages.
Conclusion
The are many issues in the contemporary society that have affected the stability of the family. These issues include divorce, single parenthood, work pressures, HIV/AIDS, among others. There is need for marital education, family counseling, and related services that can improve middle-class couples’ communication and problem-solving skills, resulting initially in greater marital satisfaction and, in some cases, reduced divorce, although these effects appear to fade over time.
References
McLanahan, S., I. Garfinkel., and R. B. Mincy. 2001. “Fragile Families, Welfare Reform, and Marriage.” Policy Brief No. 10. Washington DC: Brookings Institution.
Gennetian, L. and V. Knox. 2004. Getting and Staying Married: The Effects of a Minnesota Welfare Reform Program on Marital Stability. New York: MDRC.