Stimulus, Response, and Language Development

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Question 1

External variables within an environment that change the intensity of an event, stimulus or other objects such as reinforcement are called motivating operations. The current behavior frequency is altered with a corresponding change in intensity. As a result of the motivating operations, operations can either be abolished or established. Operations are established when events, objects, or the stimulus for reinforcement increase in intensity. For example, when somebody loves watching their favorite evening show, but they have a lot of time that they have to finish by the end of the day, they may end up concentrating on the work to be done as both the pressure for finishing the job and getting time to watch the show increasesADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1572249080″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Torneke”,”given”:”Niklas”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2010″]]},”publisher”:”New Harbinger Publications”,”title”:”Learning RFT: An introduction to relational frame theory and its clinical application”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4f6aa13d-b897-43ec-92de-c351970ec4a1”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2520-8977″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Dermot”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Finn”,”given”:”Martin”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McEnteggart”,”given”:”Ciara”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Yvonne”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Perspectives on Behavior Science”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”page”:”155-173″,”publisher”:”Springer”,”title”:”Derived stimulus relations and their role in a behavior-analytic account of human language and cognition”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”41″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=c8acc221-bf53-4b28-9db7-909c856310e2″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010). The person will choose to concentrate on the work so that they have no distractions by the time the evening show is starting.

Abolishing operations is also used in reinforcement but differently compared to establishing operations. In abolishing operations, the intensity for objects, events, and stimulus is reduced. For example, a person would rather watch episodes of their favorite show instead of concentrating on work. Being allowed to watch the show before the work will reduce the intensity of the pressure to finish the work compared to being allowed to watch only after finishing the workADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0021-8855″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Berens”,”given”:”Nicholas M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hayes”,”given”:”Steven C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2007″]]},”page”:”45-71″,”publisher”:”Wiley Online Library”,”title”:”Arbitrarily applicable comparative relations: Experimental evidence for a relational operant”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”40″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4928d13a-2cf6-4c84-b0cd-8b39d88ab810”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1292324651″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Cooper”,”given”:”John O”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heron”,”given”:”Timothy E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heward”,”given”:”William L”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2020″]]},”publisher”:”Pearson UK”,”title”:”Applied behavior analysis”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f20615c9-13a8-4df7-ad30-32754c53cec8″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020). The manipulation of these motivating behaviors has applications in planning behavior. A specific behavior can be obtained by strategizing to get specific events, stimuli, situations, and contexts.

Differential reinforcements can be classified into differential reinforcement incompatible behavior, differential reinforcement of alternative behavior, differential reinforcement of other behavior, and differential reinforcement of low rates. The differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior occurs when two behaviors cannot occur at the same time. In this case, the desired behavior cannot occur simultaneously as the problem behavior, for example, when a kid cannot read and play at the same time. When reading is the preferred behavior, it can be reinforced through rewards so s to deviate behavior from playing to reading. In contrast, differential reinforcement of alternative behavior features sets of behavior that can occur in the same setting and timeADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1572249080″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Torneke”,”given”:”Niklas”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2010″]]},”publisher”:”New Harbinger Publications”,”title”:”Learning RFT: An introduction to relational frame theory and its clinical application”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4f6aa13d-b897-43ec-92de-c351970ec4a1”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1292324651″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Cooper”,”given”:”John O”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heron”,”given”:”Timothy E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heward”,”given”:”William L”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2020″]]},”publisher”:”Pearson UK”,”title”:”Applied behavior analysis”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f20615c9-13a8-4df7-ad30-32754c53cec8″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010). For example, a player might choose to play professionally or injure other players during foul play when playing soccer. In such a case, the preferred behavior is professional playing that does not injure other players. It is therefore reinforced as opposed to foul play. Differential reinforcement of other behavior occurs when reinforcement is done in reference to the absence of the problem behaviors. For example, offenders are rewarded for good behavior when periods pass without the problem behavior of offending being noticed. The reward could be a reduction in sentence, parole, or community service. Differential reinforcement of low rates is used when the frequency of behavior needs to be reduced. For example, a dieting person may need to reduce snacking from seven times a day to three times a day. Therefore, a reward will only be given as a reinforcement when the person snacks for at most three times a day.

The execution of planned behavior may be executed in different ways. On a spectrum, the execution of planned behavior can range from promoting good behavior to reducing unwanted behavior. Different combinations of motivating operations and differential reinforcements may be used to accomplish the various situations and contexts of executing planned behavior.

Question 2

Stimulus refers to an occurrence or a condition that produces a resulting response or action. A class of stimulus refers to a group of stimuli defined by similar temporal, functional, or formal characteristics. Medication is an example of an external stimulus as much as excessive heat is an external stimulus that produces an action of perspiration. On the other hand, an infection causing fever is an example of an internal stimulus. Stimulus influences behavior. However, for stimulus to influence behavior, it must be perceived by the body. At the basic level, stimulus examples involve a shift in energy quantities that the body can perceive. For example, a shift in light energy in terms of things such as its frequency leads to visual perception such that one color can be distinguished from another. On the other hand, a shift in the energy level of sounds such as frequency, volume, or even decibels leads to audio perception such that a consistent shift of the soundwave characteristics is detected as either words or distinct sounds such as the ringtone of a phone. However, perception is only one-half of the cognitive equationADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2520-8977″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Dermot”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Finn”,”given”:”Martin”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McEnteggart”,”given”:”Ciara”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Yvonne”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Perspectives on Behavior Science”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”page”:”155-173″,”publisher”:”Springer”,”title”:”Derived stimulus relations and their role in a behavior-analytic account of human language and cognition”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”41″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=c8acc221-bf53-4b28-9db7-909c856310e2”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0021-8855″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Berens”,”given”:”Nicholas M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hayes”,”given”:”Steven C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2007″]]},”page”:”45-71″,”publisher”:”Wiley Online Library”,”title”:”Arbitrarily applicable comparative relations: Experimental evidence for a relational operant”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”40″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4928d13a-2cf6-4c84-b0cd-8b39d88ab810″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007). The perceived stimulus needs to make sense to an individual so that cognition can be achieved and the expected behavior. Usually, an elementary process of cognition occurs through conditioning. Conditioning is the process through which stimulus and responses are related such that future occurrences of the stimulus can elicit a similar response, thus resulting in planned behavior. Conditioning may also create a template on which future relations can be learned and established. For example, when there is no direct relationship between three quantities, relationships between a pair of the three quantities can be inferred from how the other two pairs relate. For example, A is equal to B, and B is equal to C, then it can be rightly inferred that A is equal to C.

Conditioning of stimulus occurs through stimulus control. Stimulus control occurs when behavior is initiated as a result of the absence or presence of a stimulus. Stimulus control can be implemented through differential reinforcement so that the absence or presence of a stimulus is used to initiate the desired behavior based on how the circumstances and rewards are manipulated. Stimulus control is enhanced either through stimuli discrimination or generalizationADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0021-8855″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Berens”,”given”:”Nicholas M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hayes”,”given”:”Steven C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2007″]]},”page”:”45-71″,”publisher”:”Wiley Online Library”,”title”:”Arbitrarily applicable comparative relations: Experimental evidence for a relational operant”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”40″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4928d13a-2cf6-4c84-b0cd-8b39d88ab810”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1292324651″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Cooper”,”given”:”John O”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heron”,”given”:”Timothy E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heward”,”given”:”William L”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2020″]]},”publisher”:”Pearson UK”,”title”:”Applied behavior analysis”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f20615c9-13a8-4df7-ad30-32754c53cec8″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020). The difference between stimuli discrimination and generalization is based on the elicited behavior’s already conditioned stimuli. In stimulus generalization, a stimulus is likened to the already conditioned stimulus such that the same response is elicited. On the other hand, stimuli discrimination differentiates between the conditioned stimulus and another stimulus.

Regarding Jasmine’s case, the targeted behavior is for Jasmine to be able to write her name on a worksheet independently when it has been placed on her desk. Currently, she is only required to trace her name on the worksheets. Over time, Jasmine should learn that her name goes at the top of the worksheet page in a particular order. Therefore, the initial stimulus of making Jasmine write her name easy by only requiring her to trace out her name should gradually be phased out and instead be replaced with a more relevant stimulusADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0021-8855″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Berens”,”given”:”Nicholas M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hayes”,”given”:”Steven C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2007″]]},”page”:”45-71″,”publisher”:”Wiley Online Library”,”title”:”Arbitrarily applicable comparative relations: Experimental evidence for a relational operant”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”40″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4928d13a-2cf6-4c84-b0cd-8b39d88ab810”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1572249080″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Torneke”,”given”:”Niklas”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2010″]]},”publisher”:”New Harbinger Publications”,”title”:”Learning RFT: An introduction to relational frame theory and its clinical application”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4f6aa13d-b897-43ec-92de-c351970ec4a1″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010). For example, the worksheet can indicate where the first name should be written, where the middle name should be written, and where the last name should be written. Initially, marks can be awarded for getting all the name sections correctly. However, when it is clear that Jasmine has mastered writing her name independently, the rewards in the form of points can be eliminated and may even be replaced by punishment such as the deduction of points for not writing the name correctly.

Question 3

Verbal behavior attempts to explain how language is developed and maintained within an individual through the influence of environmental stimuli. Communication occurs in the context of the environment through operant conditioning that assigns and reinforces meaning to communication. This communication occurs between individuals, but it needs first of all to be completed within an individual. In essence, an individual’s thoughts occur in the form of intra-personal communication. Operant conditioning of language utilizes six verbal operants: echoic, tact, mand, intraverbal, textual, and transcription. Echoic is a verbal operant that occurs under the control of verbal stimuliADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2520-8977″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Dermot”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Finn”,”given”:”Martin”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McEnteggart”,”given”:”Ciara”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Yvonne”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Perspectives on Behavior Science”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”page”:”155-173″,”publisher”:”Springer”,”title”:”Derived stimulus relations and their role in a behavior-analytic account of human language and cognition”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”41″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=c8acc221-bf53-4b28-9db7-909c856310e2”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1572249080″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Torneke”,”given”:”Niklas”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2010″]]},”publisher”:”New Harbinger Publications”,”title”:”Learning RFT: An introduction to relational frame theory and its clinical application”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4f6aa13d-b897-43ec-92de-c351970ec4a1″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Torneke, 2010). The echoic verbal operant describes a situation whereby the stimulus is exactly the same as the response. In a conversation setting, when one person says a word or a phrase or makes a sound, the other party imitates the word, phrase, or sound made to achieve the most similarity. An example is when an individual says “Shelby” and another imitates by saying the same thing, “Shelby.”

The tact verbal operant is under the control of non-verbal stimulus. One needs to have perceived the stimulus with other senses such as touch, sight, or smell. The tact verbal operant implies the necessity of direct contact with the stimulus in it its environment. This verbal operant finds most applications when actions, events, and objects have to be named. For example, when a visitor visits European cities and discovers the distinguishing features of London, the individual can say, “we are in London.”

The mand verbal operant is usually under the control of verbal stimulus. The verbal operant is used mostly in issuing commands or demands to signify what a person wants. The response is defined by the specificity of the command given. An effective mand verbal operant is usually very specific such that there is no room for guessing. Examples of a mand verbal operant would be, “I want a horse for Christmas.” In such a case, the command is specific enough. An ineffective mand verbal operant would be, “I want a gift for Christmas.” A gift does not specify the kind of gift desired.

The intraverbal operant describes a verbal behavior between individuals whereby one responds differentially to the verbal stimulus. It can be enacted in the form of a question and a response. For example, the response to “who is in charge?” could be, “well, I am the oldest.” It can also be a response to particular sounds, such as responding “bless you” when a person sneezes.

The textual, verbal operant integrates the control of both verbal and non-verbal stimuli. It occurs when an individual is reading written words. Reading does not imply cognition of the meaning of words or symbols on a page. It just implies recognition of the words. The non-verbal aspect of the operant emanates from the fact that the reader needs to visually perceive the words and symbols on the page. The verbal aspect of the operant emanates from the fact that the reader has to engage in some level of intraverbal behavior so that through language, they can read aloud what they have perceived. For example, an individual could read the words Peaky Blinders on the cover and say the words out loud.

Verbal operants can also occur through dictation, which is referred to as the transcription verbal operant. It occurs when individuals can discern the spelling of the words which are said to them. They then write the correct spelling of the words, phrases, and sentences. It also means being able to discern the correct use of punctuation and where to place the punctuation marks in the transcribed sentences. A good example could be writing out the lyrics of a song such as the In the Bleak Midwinter.

Question 4

Derived stimulus relation refers to the association of different trained stimuli to get untrained and unreinforced responses. The relation is usually not directly taught or trained; it only relies upon the relation of different stimuli. Under the concept of derived stimulus relation, the physical properties of the stimulus are not the only factor that influences the response. It uses relative comparison to infer conclusionsADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1292324651″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Cooper”,”given”:”John O”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heron”,”given”:”Timothy E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heward”,”given”:”William L”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2020″]]},”publisher”:”Pearson UK”,”title”:”Applied behavior analysis”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f20615c9-13a8-4df7-ad30-32754c53cec8”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0021-8855″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Berens”,”given”:”Nicholas M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hayes”,”given”:”Steven C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2007″]]},”page”:”45-71″,”publisher”:”Wiley Online Library”,”title”:”Arbitrarily applicable comparative relations: Experimental evidence for a relational operant”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”40″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4928d13a-2cf6-4c84-b0cd-8b39d88ab810″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Berens & Hayes, 2007; Cooper et al., 2020). A good example would be when comparing the heights of brothers. When Thomas is taller than Arthur, Arthur is taller than John, and John is taller than Phill, several relations can be identified even though there is no initial direct comparison. For example, it can be rightly concluded that Phil is the shortest of the brothers, Thomas is the tallest of the brothers, and that Arthurs is taller than Phill by virtue of Arthur being taller than John, who is taller than Phill.

Derived stimulus relation has two stimulus classes, arbitrary stimulus class and feature stimulus class. In the arbitrary stimulus class, an arbitrary category is selected, which may group stimuli that do not directly relate to each other. For example, the Allied forces grouped forces from France, England, and the United States, forces from different countries with distinct language characteristics, only brought together by their dislike of the Nazis. The feature stimulus class groups stimuli into a category with either a relative relationship or a limited similarity in physical features. Derived stimulus relation is important for both language development and cognition. It allows people to communicate relationships based on arbitrary or feature characteristicsADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1572249080″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Torneke”,”given”:”Niklas”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2010″]]},”publisher”:”New Harbinger Publications”,”title”:”Learning RFT: An introduction to relational frame theory and its clinical application”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4f6aa13d-b897-43ec-92de-c351970ec4a1”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1292324651″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Cooper”,”given”:”John O”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heron”,”given”:”Timothy E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Heward”,”given”:”William L”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2020″]]},”publisher”:”Pearson UK”,”title”:”Applied behavior analysis”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=f20615c9-13a8-4df7-ad30-32754c53cec8″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Cooper et al., 2020; Torneke, 2010). For example, a word can have various meanings through semantics based on the context in which the word is used. Similarly, different words might be synonymous with each other because they communicate the same meaning. These incomplete relationships allow for language to be flexible and diverse such that a range of meanings can be communicated based on how a small number of words are related to each other.

Since language is used for communication, cognition is also important. An individual must be able to understand what they are trying to communicate. At the same time, the other person must be able to perceive what is being communicated. Therefore, derived stimulus relation provides a standard approach to communication such that the intended message is preserved from the sender to the receiver. When a person is verbally communicating through language, the relations upon which the words and the context are based must be interpreted similarly by the intended audienceADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2520-8977″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Dermot”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Finn”,”given”:”Martin”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McEnteggart”,”given”:”Ciara”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barnes-Holmes”,”given”:”Yvonne”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Perspectives on Behavior Science”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”page”:”155-173″,”publisher”:”Springer”,”title”:”Derived stimulus relations and their role in a behavior-analytic account of human language and cognition”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”41″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=c8acc221-bf53-4b28-9db7-909c856310e2”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0021-8855″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Berens”,”given”:”Nicholas M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hayes”,”given”:”Steven C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2007″]]},”page”:”45-71″,”publisher”:”Wiley Online Library”,”title”:”Arbitrarily applicable comparative relations: Experimental evidence for a relational operant”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”40″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4928d13a-2cf6-4c84-b0cd-8b39d88ab810”]},{“id”:”ITEM-3″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1572249080″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Torneke”,”given”:”Niklas”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2010″]]},”publisher”:”New Harbinger Publications”,”title”:”Learning RFT: An introduction to relational frame theory and its clinical application”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=4f6aa13d-b897-43ec-92de-c351970ec4a1″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Barnes-Holmes et al., 2018; Berens & Hayes, 2007; Torneke, 2010). Therefore, cognition of the meaning needs to be established by identifiable relationships between different stimuli.

On