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Torsion bar, also referred to as torsion beam suspension or torsion spring suspension, is suspension system found in vehicles
Torsion Bar
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Introduction
Torsion bar, also referred to as torsion beam suspension or torsion spring suspension, is suspension system found in vehicles. The long metal bar has two ends in which one ends is firmly perpendicular manner to the bar, linked with the wishbone or the suspension arm axle. The bar gains a rotary secured into the chassis of a vehicle, while the other end terminates in a lever fixed in a motion along its axis due to the wheels vertical motion. However, the bar’s motion finds resistance from the bar’s torsion resistance. The material, diameter, and length of the bar effectively determine the bar’s spring rate (Miller 2007). These suspensions find applications in trucks, Dodge, SUV’s from Ford, and GM. Torsion bars have room for height compensation in order to adjust the ride height. However, excessive torsion bar results in a harsh ride if a bump the suspension system hits a bump prematurely. Therefore, ride quality and proper steering are factors dependent on the suspension system (Knowles 2011).
A
In selecting any material, it is necessary to put into consideration a number of factors including cost, performance, safety and regulation. As such, the material chosen for the task is high-carbon steel, which is a material that introduces elements of competitive edge, economy, operation stability, and success in the manufacture of the torsion bar. This steel has less than 2.11 % and more than 0.8% carbon in its composition. The material has a high level of wear resistance metal hardness. In addition, high-carbon steel sustains heavy loads and operates over a wide range of high temperatures. Moreover, high-carbon steel has a low thermal conductivity and expansion has indicated in table two.
Table 1: Mechanical properties of high carbon steel (Adapted from: Pacific Sintered Metals n.d).
High Carbon Steel
PSM Code F-244-S
Density G/CC 6.8/7.2
Yield strength PSI (A) 40,000
Ultimate tensile strength PSI(A) 57,000
Elongation % (A, B) 1.0
Impact strength Ft-Lbs (A, E) 5
Apparent hardness Rockwell (F) RB 70
Transverse rupture PSI (A) 100,000
Young’s modulus 106 PSI (A) 19
Equivalent MPIF specification F-0008-35
Table 2: High carbon steel properties (Adapted from: material science and engineering).
High Carbon Steel
Density 203 kgm-3 7.84
Thermal conductivity Jm-1K 46
Thermal expansion 10-6K-1 10.8
Young’s modulus GNm-2 210
Tensile strength MNm-2 800
% elongation 8
Using table two, the normal stress developed by high-carbon steel is
σ = E*ε = 210*8 =1,680 GNm-2
Where σ = Normal stress
E = Young’s modulus
ε = Elongation
Metal alloys have inherent small elements regarded as residual or trace elements, which originate from the raw materials (Claymont 2009). However, solid forms of these metal alloys have no constituents of hazardous materials. Therefore, high-carbon steel has no hazardous material in solid form. In spite of this, exposure of high-carbon steel to processes, such as burning, grinding and machining, makes the metal emit airborne contaminants that it contains. As such, the processes in which high-carbon steel undergoes need to take place in well-ventilated environments and respiratory protection and other measures need adoption.
Given that high-carbon steel is an alloy of carbon and steel, the cost of manufacturing and component is reduced to the maximum. High-carbon steel is a metal alloy that has a wide acceptance globally. As such, there are no regulations that limit the use of the metal alloy in the manufacture of torsion bars. The properties of high-carbon steel including hardness, high tensile strength and wear resistance make it a suitable material for the manufacture of torsion bar. Land Rover Discovery develops high-tension forces; as such, high carbon steel will form the best material for the manufacture of the torsion bar.
B
Since the selected material is new, there is a need of subjecting the material to several tests including tensile tests, impact strength test, hardness test, and heat treatment test. The material will first be subjected into a torsion-testing machine, which will aid in depicting the shear strength and shear modulus of the material. In the torsion-testing machine, the twist angle and torque produced by the material as it undergoes twisting will be recorded. Strain gauges will aid in the determination of Poisson’s ratio, young modulus, and shear modulus.
Hardness test is necessary, and it will be conducted by subjecting a sample of high-carbon steel into an indenter machine. The depth of indenter will infer the hardness test since the indenter has a calibrated dial gauge. Impact test will also be conducted to determine the impact strength of high-carbon steel. This will occur through striking a test sample with a measuring device pendulum. The amount of absorbed energy is then measured and recorded.
Heat treatment test will occur through subjecting samples of high-carbon steel into an electric furnace. The samples are expected to remain in the furnace until the temperature is approximately 850OC. At this temperature, the samples will have to be soaked for about two hours in this temperature. The samples soaked then are classified into three groups. One group remains in the air, and the other two groups are quenched in palm oil and water respectively. Quenched samples are tempered at a temperature of 200OC for one hour and allowed to cool in the air. ANSYS 5.4 software will play a key role in conducting finite analysis for the numerical study. The test samples will be modelled with reference to experimentally tested samples, and torque, as well as boundary conditions, applied to aid in obtaining torsion deflections. Theoretical and experimental analysis will then facilitate in the determination of the static behaviour of high-carbon steel.
The testing process will take place with reference to data obtained from the Land Rover Discovery manufacturer concerning the static and dynamic loads disseminated by the vehicle, as well as the maximum and minimum rotary speeds of the axle of the vehicle. This data will aid in devising a failure mechanism for the testing process. In this, the strength and load bearing capacity developed by high-carbon steel will be compared to the data. As such, if the high carbon steel collected data infer small values than Land Rover Discovery data, rejection will occur. On the other hand, if the high carbon data depicts high values than Land Rover Discovery data, acceptance will occur. In addition, theories of failure such as maximum stress theory, strain energy of distortion theory, and maximum shear stress theory will find application in failure analysis. The test data will further aid in design decisions. In this, various designs development will take place to create a room for selection of the most suitable design that yields the best results.
The testing process will end after the determination of the static behaviour of high-carbon steel. This testing regime adopted will aid in inferring the appropriateness of adopting high-carbon steel as a material for torsion bar. Given that Land Rover Discovery is a heavy vehicle that has potential of disseminating heavy loads, the tensile strength, impact strength and hardness test for high-carbon steel are necessary to evaluate the suitability of the material in torsion bar manufacture. Land Rover Discovery suspension system emits heat; thus, a need for heat treatment test for high-carbon steel. Static behaviour determination is crucial for high-carbon steel material for it helps in inferring the behaviour of the material at differing loads and rotary motion. Therefore, the testing regime will aid finding out whether high-carbon steel material is suitable for making the Land Rover Discovery torsion bar component.
C
If the torsion bar were being designed for A Smart for 2, the material selection would differ extensively. This occurs since A Smart for 2 vehicle develops minimal loads than a Land Rover Discovery. The material selection process will then focus on weight reduction of the vehicle since a heavy material may lead to addition of weight on the axle of the vehicle. The selection process will also focus on reduction of use of an excess material that may appear redundant on the vehicle suspension system. The testing process will focus on the ability of the selected material to sustain shock loads, and bear the dynamic, as well as the static forces developed by the vehicle.
A low-carbon steel metal alloy would be efficient to make the torsion bar for A Smart for 2 vehicle. This is because, unlike high-carbon steel, low-carbon steel is quite light in weight. This characteristic makes the metal easier to form and gives the metal a ductile nature. In addition, the metal is fairly in expensive in comparison to high-carbon steel. Moreover, the surface hardening can take place through carburizing process. Carburizing process occurs through subjecting the metal alloy to a carbon-rich atmosphere.
On the other, the selection process of the material for torsion bar for Pagani Zonda C9 will also differ. Pagani Zonda C9 is light sport vehicle; therefore, the vehicle needs a suspension system that will aid in attaining this weight. The material selection process will emphasize on obtaining strength, and lightweight for the vehicle. The testing procedure of the material selected for Pagani Zonda C9 would pay much attention to the ability of the material to sustain higher dynamic forces, being strong, and exhibit malleability properties.
A suitable material for making a torsion bar for this kind of vehicle is aluminium. Aluminium is a light metal that will aid in development of the necessary weight of the vehicle. Aluminium also has the inherent properties of being a very strong metal, which is malleable and ductile. As such, aluminium develops the necessary strength and weight of the suspension system of Pagani Zonda C9.
Bibliography
Claymont, 2009. Material Safety Data Sheet. Evraz Claymont Steel, Inc.
Knowles, D, 2011. Automotive Suspension & Steering System: Classroom Manual. The Fifth
Edition. Delmar, Cengage Learning.
Miller, J, 2007. Be Your Own Auto Repair Technician. Global Media.
Pacific Sintered Metals, n.d. High Performance Powdered Metal (PM) Iron and Carbon
Steels. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.pacificsintered.com/iron.html” http://www.pacificsintered.com/iron.html
Ragham, V, n.d. Material Science and Engineering. The fourth edition.
Topics in leadership and management in education
Topics in leadership and management in education
The following are the proposed three topics on leadership and management in education. the topics have been accompanied with a summary of major areas to be covered in the main paper.
The role of head teacher/senior managers and the management of new curriculum initiatives
This topic will critically evaluate the role of head teacher/ senior managers in initiating, supporting and evaluating new curriculum initiatives. It will further exploit, strategies for school performance improvement and basic leadership initiatives that encompass senior managers, teachers and students in promoting assessment for learning, self-assessment, learning theories and success criteria.
Key issues in restructuring education programs
This topic will exploit the complexity of restructuring processes and the challenges faced in education. It will deal with issues involving
developing a vision that unites projects
identifying outcomes that need to be assessed and addressed
school obtaining active support from the community
Redefining the role of the principles from power and ego wilders to facilitators and project leaders
Changing of the basic school practices to meet the need of students at-risk.
Transformational leadership
This topic examines transformation leadership which puts focus on the importance of teamwork and detailed school improvement as an alternative to other modes of leadership. The topic will exploit the differences between transformational leadership and instructional leadership which encompass hierarchies and supervision which excludes development of teachers and transactional leadership which is based on exchange of services for particular rewards. It will clearly address leadership qualities demonstrated in the above there modes of leadership namely transformational, instructional, and transactional and their relationship to student and school improvement.
Embracing creative leadership in schools
A corporate leader who encourages continuous learning and embraces change in schools helps to define the schools culture that is flexible and modern. Rather than fearing condemnation for suggesting different directions, students and their families in this kind of environment will feel free to express ideas and opinions, leading to higher performance.
Topics in International Economics
Topics in International Economics
Text: Robert J. Carbaugh, International Economics, 14th Edition (South-Western).
Test 2 study questions (final)
Part I: Terms DEFINE BASED ON READINGS AND NOTE
(Response should be at least one paragraph).
Part II: Graphical expositions SHOW ALL WORK AND EXPLAINATIONS
Assume perfect competition and use partial equilibrium analysis unless otherwise specified. Note, the possible dynamic gains from some of the commercial policies below are not being considered.
Graph and explain the impacts of an import tariff on a small importing country.
When a tariff has been imposed on goods imported by a small country it has no effect on the international price. The price of the imported goods will rise by the amount of the tariff. This will make the domestic producers to increase the price of their goods and increase the profits that they gain from the sale of their products. Even though they increase the price of the product, it does not reach that of the imported products. This means that there will be a movement along the domestic supply curve due to the change in price charged and the quantity supplied.
An increase in the price level will lead to a decrease in the quantity demanded and an increase in the quantity produced.
An increase in price from P0-P1, will lead to a decrease in the equilibrium quantity from Q0-Q1.
When a tariff is imposed, the government gains from revenue from the tax, while the producers gain from the increase in price. The only group that looses is the consumers; this is the net national loss.
2. Graph and explain the impact of an import tariff on a large importing country and discuss the conditions under which an optimum tariff rate can result in a net gain for the large importing country.
Large importing countries have an impact on the international prices of commodities. So when a country imposes a tariff, the price of the goods will increase but not with the same amount as that of the tariff. This is because it will be reflected on the global prices of the goods. There will be an improved terms of trade because the tariff will cause the international price to decrease. However the improved terms of trade, which is meant to create a trade surplus, is subject to; at exactly which point in the production and sale process the tariff is imposed.
The imposition of a tariff by a large importing country will lead to loss of efficiency costs attributed to the international price disturbance due to a decline in the demand for the goods.
as noted above there will a slight decrease in the quantity demanded due to a slight price increase because the international price will be decreased at the global level.
3. Analyze and explain the impact of an import tariffs in the two cases when the demand curve and supply curve have zero elasticity (for large country case).
When the supply and demand curve has zero elasticity, then it means that they are perfectly inelastic. This means a change in the price level will have no effect on the quantity demanded by the consumers. In this case the consumer surplus is not affected by the increase in price.
For a small importing country, there will not be a decline in the quantity demanded and the two winning teams will have a bigger reward; the government will have increased revenue while the domestic producers will experience increased profits. The consumers will still acquire the utility they desire from the consumption of the goods.
In a large importing country, there will be no changes in the international price, because the tariff will not alter the quantity demanded. In this case the loss of efficiency cost will not be incurred and the domestic government will experience an increase in the revenue collected.
PS
D0 D1
P1
P0
4. Analyze and explain the impact of an import tariff using general equilibrium analysis.
The imposition of an import tariff will increase the equilibrium price and consequently decrease the equilibrium quantity. This is because the tariff will be passed on to the consumer through the price; an increase in price will make consumers demand less of the product. In this case, a tariff can be used to regulate the demand and consumption of a product by a government. The higher the tariff, the lower the demand for the product and the reverse is also true.
5. Analyze and explain the impact of an export tariff (assume constant cost technology and exporter with market power).
When an export tariff is placed on a product, the price of the product becomes high to the consumer who is basically considered to be out of the country. This will lead to an increase in the international price of the good especially if the export tariff is placed on a large exporting country. An increase in the price of the commodity will lead to a decline in the demand for it internationally.
In a free market scenario where international organizations and cartels do not control the demand and supply of goods, the low demand of the commodity will lead to a decrease in the price by either reducing the tariff or completely doing away with it. The international market will be returned back to its initial equilibrium point.
6. Compare the impacts of a tariff to a quota under the condition of an increase in domestic demand.
When there is an increase in domestic demand of a good then it means that more of a specific good is being imported in order to cater for the demand. When a tariff is imposed, the price of the good will increase and the consumers will have a reduced purchasing power as it is the same as having a part of their income reduced. This will lead to a decrease in the demand as the good will no longer be affordable to the public.
When a quota is put in place, the quantity of a good that is imported is reduces, the shortage will lead to an increase in the price of the product. This will increase the marginal utility of the good and more people will be willing to purchase the good, however there it will low on supply.
7. Compare the impacts of a quota under the condition of an increase in domestic demand for a monopoly.
A monopoly is a firm that has competitive advantage that allows it to thrive as the only producer for a market. When there is an increase in domestic demand, then it means the monopoly can increase the price and supply minimum quantity in order to increase sales and revenue. However when it is easier to import a close substitute of the product, people will opt for the import. If a quota is placed, then the monopoly is given back its control power over the market. This is a move that will reduce consumer welfare as they stand the chance of being exploited by increases in domestic prices. This is the reason why monopolies are usually closely monitored and controlled by the government. This is by placing price roofs.
8. Compare the impacts of an import tariff to an import quota under the condition of an increase in domestic supply.
An increase in supply ensures that the price of the imported good is kept low, when a tariff is imposed, the good becomes expensive to import hence the price will be increased. An increase in the price of the good will deter consumers from purchasing it.
When a quota is imposed, the price will increase as a result of a shortage in supply of the good. This will means that the welfare of the consumers will not be properly catered for. The imposition of a tariff will decrease supply as a reaction to the decrease in demand of the good. The quota simply limits the quantity supplied and allows the market forces to come into play afterwards.
9. Explain how an import quota is a more reliable form of protection subject to varying elasticities of supply and demand.
Import quotas places a limit that cannot be surpassed by any importer, the market forces will come into play later on. However the imposition of taxes in order to reduce demand or supply is completely dependent on the market forces which can only work freely if they are not interfered by any other force including cartels and backstreet trade. This is not reliable as the expected consumer reaction may not be achieved as consumers are known to be subjective and not objective.
10. Analyze the impact of an export quota (voluntary export restraint) with and without trade diversion.
An export quota means that the maximum quantity that can be exported is set to a specific limit. The effect is that there will be a decrease in imports of the commodity in other countries. If the country is a large exporting country, there will be an increase in the international price of the good as it is limited in supply. Domestically there will increase in the quantity supplied and this will lead to a decrease in price and an increase in consumption. The quantity produced will remain the same.
11. Analyze the impact of a tariff rate quota (two-tier tariff).
Tariff rate quota is based on the understanding that imports are subject to a lower rate of tax to be charged depending on a predetermined limited quantity. An increase in the quantity imported will lead to an increase in the tariff charged. The impact is that large imports will cost more and are to be discouraged. The domestic government is likely to earn more revenue from tariff rate quota because the higher the quantity of import the higher the tariff charged.
12. Analyze the impact of imposing domestic content requirements.
Domestic content requirement limits the variety of a particular good because there are certain contents that are insisted upon and others are disregarded completely. It increases domestic demand for good as such a policy is based on domestic research and analysis. There is usually a decrease in export of the commodity to other countries and an increase in import of close but differentiated commodities as consumers seek to satisfy their need for consumption.
13. Analyze the impact of a producer subsidy.
Producer subsidies means that the government gets to cater for some payments in order to decrease the variable cost experienced by the producer. By doing so, the producer subsidies will decrease the equilibrium price charged by the producer and increase the quantity produced in the market. It also allows for easier expansion of the producers and this increases resource utilization and output.
14. Analyze the impact of an export subsidy (small=- country case).
An export subsidy for a small exporting country will increase the exports for the goods. This will domestically decrease the quantity available and increase lead to a positive balance of trade. However there will have no impact on the international price as the quantity exported will be negligible at the global level.
15. Analyze the impact of an export subsidy (large country case).
An export subsidy will increase the quantity of goods exported; this will lead to a decrease in the international price as a large exporting country will have will have an impact on the international business. A decrease in the international price will discourage other exporters from selling their gods internationally and eventually there will be a decline in the international quantity available for trade. Domestically there will a decrease in the quantity available and domestically the exported goods may become expensive.
16. Show how persistent dumping occurs when domestic and foreign demand curve elasiticities vary.
Dumping is basically when one country sells its goods in another country at a cheaper price. It is sometimes meant to decrease international competition and at times meant to decrease surplus in the supplying country. When the domestic demand is inelastic as compared to the foreign demand, the suppliers will decrease the price in the foreign market in order to increase the sales. However when the domestic market ]has a more elastic demand curve dumping will not be imposed as changes in the price will lead to changes in responsive quantities.
Part III: Narratives LONG RESPONSES BASED ON NOTES AND READINGS
1. Discuss the various forms of dumping.
Sporadic dumping – it is the sale of a product abroad at a lower price than domestically in order to do away with the surplus of the same good without having the need to reduce the price domestically.
Persistent dumping- it is a sale in products as result of decrease in international prices due to a type of price discrimination employed
Predatory dumping- it is characterized by a competition with other foreign market in an emerging market. This leads to the sale of the goods at a lower price and it finally drives out all competition after which the prices are hiked again.
Explain the nature of anti-dumping measures and their effectiveness.
Some of the anti dumping measures include protectionism policies that ensure that import of goods from a country regardless of their prices is restricted. This aids in supporting the domestic industries to flourish. Anti dumping measures are effective in two ways; ensuring that domestic industries grow and by restricting free trade between countries. These restrictions limit the variety of goods that consumers have to choose from and limits the opportunities of the country, most of the time the restrictions are based on political gain rather than economical gain. This is the reason as to why they are put in place in developed countries like the U.S but free trade is encouraged in emerging markets mostly in developing countries.
Cite and explain any two NTBs other than the ones analyzed in Part II.
NTBs are non tariff barriers to trade; they are theoretically supposed to restrict the importation of goods without the use of a tariff. They include the following;
Import bans- this occurs when a country completely refuses a product to be imported to the country for various reasons including health and safety which are the most common.
Increase in the trade documents for importation for instance the use of certificate of origin, certificate of authenticity and increase in license fees. This makes the importing process to be long, tedious and expensive in the end it is not effective.
4. Discuss the mainstream case against protectionism.
Protectionism is imposed when a country restricts the importation of locally produced goods in order to nurture and protect the domestic companies. This is because imported goods are usually cheaper and they do not offer fair competition to locally produced goods that are relatively expensive. Protectionism in this case encompasses the implementation of several economic policies that will restrict the quantity demanded of the imported goods. Protectionism will include the use of import quotas, tariffs and even the tariff rate quota.
Protectionism aids in creating domestic employment because it fosters domestic production of goods, at the same time it allows for a country to control the value of the domestic currency. Devaluation at times can lead to massive financial losses. As much as protectionism aids in protecting especially emerging markets that are always a target of international trade, it has its drawbacks. This is because free trade between two countries regardless of whether one is more efficient in production makes both countries to be better off; pareto efficiency is established.
5. Explore the political economy of protectionism.
When it comes to trade liberalism and international trade, the decision is usually a political as much as it is an economic issue. Decisions on whether to restrict trade within a country is domestically determined based on the political stand of the country. A good example is the agricultural industry is a subjected to extreme level of protectionism domestically and globally. This is based on the following premise;
The industry is a labor intensive industry and offers a lot of employment opportunity and contributes much to the income of the country. If not properly handled massive income is to be lost.
The industry is the main source of food and decrease in supply of food can result in social, political and economic problems that if left unchecked cannot be reversed.
The textile and manufacture industry is also protected because it aids in times of recession and avoids a country actually going into a depression. Most of the owners of the means of production in the two industries have political influence and hence any policy that works against their labor, income and sales is highly discouraged.
6. What is the case against the Uruguay Round from a LIC/LMIC perspective and explain the resistance against the Doha Development Round.
The Uruguay round was initially supposed to aid in decreasing the structural inefficiencies experienced and trade spill over experienced by the imposition of certain economic policies in developing countries. The Uruguay Round aided in the agricultural industry as prior to the round there was an international decline in the price of agricultural products and demand was steadily increasing as supply decreased. The resistance against the Doha Development Round was because some of the countries felt that there was over emphasis on some industries at the expense of others and most of the developing countries were the victims.
LIC and LMIC, least industrialized countries are supposed to gain from the round, but due to influence from the developed nations, these countries are simply exploited while the developed countries benefit. The Doha development round is supposed to lower the trade restrictions but the resistance is because most of the developed countries fear losses while developing countries fear exploitation.
7. Discuss the various agreements agreed to under the Uruguay Round and how these impinged the policy space available to L/MIC.
The various agreements involve;
General agreements about the tariff and quotas to be imposed on imports
Increase in agricultural products trade between countries at a subsidized rate.
There is a clearly provided process of converting restrictions on tariffs imposed.
Clearly set rules on export and import subsidies, sanitary conditions and phytosanitary measures.
Part IV: Numerical (I will give you other practice problems)
a. Suppose that WVA (world value added) is 300 – 200 = 100. Calculate the EPR (effective protection rate) for the output given a 20 percent NPR (nominal protection rate) on the output (2).
Value added in production process= 300-200=100
A 20% protection
100%=300
120%= (120× 300)/ 100 = 360
The price can change up to 360 instead of 300
360-200=160
ERP= (160 -60)/60=1.67 × 100= 167%
b. Recalculate the ERP assuming WVA is 300 – 250 = 50 and the tariff on output is 20 percent. (2)
Value added in protection process = 300 -250= 50
A 20% protection
100%=300
120%= (120× 300)/ 100 = 360
360-250=110
ERP= (110-50)/50 = 1.2 × 100= 120%
c. Recalculate the ERP assuming in a) the tariff on input is 20 percent and there is no tariff on the output. (2)
100%= 300
80%= (80 ×300)/100 =240
Value added= 300 -240= 60
ERP= 60/60 = 100%