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To what extent, if any, is ethnicity or being an Indigenous person a discriminating factor in accessing health care in Austra
To what extent, if any, is ethnicity or being an Indigenous person a discriminating factor in accessing health care in Australia?
Introduction
A number of issues influence the access to quality health care among the Indigenous people in Australia. Inequalities with regards to the access of health care as well as service utilization among the Indigenous Australian people tend to quantify the scope of the disparities along with health care access needed by this group.
Ethnicity in Australia is mainly related to the dominance of the white Anglo-Australians with additional people of colour or various linguistic groups. It is therefore entrenched in the dominant culture and is evident in lower levels education accomplishments, low incomes, high unemployment levels, deprived access to goods and services, political dispowerment in addition to uneven population health (Lupton et.al.,1995).
Psychosocial effects of racism, homophobia and marginalization take account of shame, seclusion, lack of self worth, emotional disorders and havoc, likely refusal by family and friends, homelessness and increased risk of acquiring Hiv/Aids. Ethnicity acts as an underlying cause to such disparities towards their accessing of quality health care in addition to contributing to the major unnecessary ill health.
The assessment of the Indigenous peoples’ health in Australia assumes two major forms. A concern with the prevalence of the diseases affecting them and the problem- centered, with focus on the problems that the indigenous people experience due to the fact that they come from different cultural backgrounds. The particular concern here lies on their interaction with the health system (Lupton et.al., 1995). Taken as a whole, Australians benefit from one of the highest life expectancies in the world as suggested by the world health organization(WHO 2003).On the other hand ,the health and social care of indigenous and immigrants predominantly those of culturally and linguistically varied backgrounds and refugee, leaves a lot to be desired. The health status of the Indigenous Australian population is much worse as compared to those of non-indigenous Australian population. The estimated life expectancy on birth for the Indigenous Australians is about 15-20 years less for both men and women as compared to the national mean (Papadopoulos, 2006).
As a result of this, Indigenous Australians are more prone to cases of disability as well as considerably lower quality of life, a consequence of the poor health they are subjected to. They have also shorter life expectancies as compared to the other Australian population. These patterns are replicated in the Australian data on mortality rates, life expectancy rates, birth weights as well as hospitalization rates.
Health care process entails a lot. It involves the social, environmental as well as the political influences that shape individuals, groups as well as various populations to take charge thus improving their health. Health promotions cover quite a number of disciplines that includes public health, education, psychology, sociology among others (White, 2009).
The health status of the Indigenous Australians has always been below those of the non-Indigenous. This means their health conditions has been poorer compared to other Australians with statistics showing their life expectancy being about 18-19 years less. Their exclusion from health care and olden day’s inappropriate practices may still be affecting their attitudes even today. This was because the mainstream healthcare showed little understanding of their cultural differences. Their level of trauma experienced therefore increased over time due the scale whereby every community became affected in much the same way. This proceeded on over the subsequent generation (Kevin, 2006).
The physical as well as the social environments in which the Indigenous Australians have been subjected to due to their background has therefore impinged on their opportunities to live healthy lives comparatively free of severe illness. Many Indigenous Australians presently live under conditions of apparent social as well as economic disadvantage, which is a contributory factor to their poor health in a number of groups of Indigenous Australians. The ethnic-based discrimination is bad for the health of the Indigenous Australians in a number of ways such as;
Restricting access to various resources needed for their health such as employment, good housing and education.
Affecting individuals who eventually turn to drugs in order to manage their stress therefore damaging their health (e.g., smoking and alcohol use).
Ethnical discrimination results in negative emotions for instance stress and fear, that have possible negative results on their mental health, immune as well as cardiovascular systems.
internalization of negative assessments as well as stereotypes impacts on their psychological health as well as self-worth, consecutively increasing problems related to depression, alcohol use and psychological stress
ethnical discrimination may be evident in violence related to both physical as well as mental health end results
There is therefore a clear link between ethnical discrimination to depression and anxiety as the key contributors to the diseases burden among the Indigenous Australian. There are also apparent links between ethnicity and other mental health as well as behaviour problems with rising proofs of a link with poor physical health, such as cases of diabetes, obesity problems as well as high blood pressure. Many researchers have confirmed the link noted among various men as well and women, across different age cohorts and across different ethnical groups (keleher, 2006).
The link in this case, remains as one of the factors used to explain the poor mental health outcomes found among the Indigenous Australians, who are in most cases socially as well as economically disadvantaged. Both institutional and interpersonal forms of ethnic based discrimination play a significant contribution to poor health among the Indigenous Australians. Proofs have been analytically collected on how the pathway through communal, political, environmental as well as the economical determinants decode into ill health, and the way in which social environments as well as setting where people live does not only influence how they act, but also have a undeviating impact on their health(Keleher et.al.,2006).
Social Exclusion
Ethnicity coming in a way of social isolation creates depression and costs lives. The process of social isolation with regards to ethnicity and the scope of relative deprivation within the Australian society have had a great impact on the health of the Indigenous Australians at times leading to premature deaths. The risks to their health come not only as a result of material deprivation, but also through the social in addition to psychological problems associated with poverty as well as marginalization. Increasing income disparity in Australia and more so among the disadvantaged group like the Indigenous Australians make this a rising problem (Keleher et.al, 2006).
The consequences of this is that, the Indigenous Australians, subjected to social isolation and social exclusion become subject to deteriorating levels of personal control and high levels of loneliness and discontent. They therefore reveal an increased need to access mental health services and go through high stress levels as well as high mortality rates for all causes of death. They suffer more from depression, have no t benefit of wellbeing and are at high risk of pregnancy complications in the case of pregnant women.
Social exclusion through ethnicity comes as a result of marginality and inequity on the peoples’ opportunities to contribute to the society and lowers down their access to acquire opportunities so as to contribute to the society. These confine their access to various opportunities towards economic as well as social participation with vast economic and social penalties for those already living on very low incomes. Populations most commonly well-known as mainly at risk due to social exclusion entail those with inadequate job opportunities, predominantly black and the ethnic marginal groups.
Unemployment, Employment and Working Conditions
Ethnicity acts as a go-between employment opportunity. Unemployment as a result of ethnicity puts the Indigenous Australians’ health at risk with the risk of poor health being at a high level in regions where the unemployment level is more widespread. The health impacts as a result of unemployment levels of the Indigenous Australians are linked to the psychological consequences and the accompanying financial problems. Low pay, harsh as well as stressful work subjected to the Indigenous Australians has a great impact on their general health (Papadopoulos, 2006).
Negative stress at their places of work enhances the risk of ill health. However, it is not just the stress and the demanding work that is the main problem. It is the stress that come out in the form of having very little control and authority with regards to work affairs. All these are a consequences brought by ethnicity placed upon them as a disadvantaged group. Lack of appreciation as well as reward may also be another health burden. The reward or effort imbalance discriminating against them in ethnicity background acts as a significant determinant of their health. Stress comes when people sense their positions are under threat, not just being unemployed and this poses a significant impact on their health.
Early Life Connectedness to Ethnicity
Evidences with regards to the effects of past experiences as also had a significant impact on the health of the Indigenous Australians. Keleher (2006) says that this has been able to spark a rising consensus on the significance of early child growth as an influential health determinant in its own right. The impacts of the past physical as well as social environment on childhood growth last his or her whole life.
Lack of emotional support during early childhood leads to poor physical health as well as reducing the physical and emotional performance in adulthood. Poor social as well as economic situations thereafter present a major challenge to a child’s development and health condition. Low socio-economic status among the Indigenous Australians has been known to be related to development impediment, low school attainments and employment prospects, behavior problems, rising cases of persistent illness and dental facts.
Their health problems have therefore been attributed to a legacy of long time practices such as being thrown away from their lands, family separation, cultural dislocation as well as discrimination. Surveys conducted in 1994 by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) have shown that children who were forcibly removed from their families in childhood are twice as likely to assess their health status as poor as compared to those who were not removed.
The surveys also document the devastating impacts of the removal of both children of the Indigenous Australians from their families and the general impacts of fragmentation on the families today. Early years of an individuals’ life is therefore foundational to their health through their lives (Keleher, 2006).
Social Connectedness
Ethnicity has also impacted on the social connection of the Indigenous Australians. Friendship, healthy social relations as well as supportive networks are crucial to enhancing individuals’ health. Being part of a social responsibility makes individuals believe they are cared for as well as being valued. This translates to improved psychological health as well as enhanced physical health (Lupton, 1995).
Social capital which has been lacking in the case of the Indigenous Australians due to ethnical discrimination is linked social connectedness. Ethnical discrimination has for a long time denied this group the benefits that come along with social connectedness. This has led to lack of emotional support leading to poor psychological health among most Indigenous Australians (Keleher, 2006).
Conclusion
It is much difficult to separate the impacts of ethnicity towards the access of health care services on the general health of the Indigenous Australian population. Socio-economic aspects for instance housing, income and employment levels and the provision of non- healthcare government provisions such as hygienic water, nutrition, education and public housing each contribute to overall health outcomes.
The outcomes and efficiency of health care services are also influenced by population aspects different from the governments’ control, consisting of geographic distribution, ethnicity profiles, and socio-economic status (Fowler et.al., 2010).
Reference
Fowler, C.eta l( 2010). Addressing the Gap in Indigenous Health: Government Intervention or Community Governance. A qualitative review. The International Journal of Health Sociology. Retrieved on September 13 from
< HYPERLINK “http://hsr.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/19/issue/1/article/3564/addressing-the-gap-in-indigenous-health” http://hsr.e-contentmanagement.com/archives/vol/19/issue/1/article/3564/addressing-the-gap-in-indigenous-health>
Keleher, H & St. John, W.(2006).Community Nursing Practice: Theory, Skills and Issues. Allen & Unwin.
Lupton, G.M& Najman, M. (1995). Sociology of Health and Illness. Palgrave Macmillan Australia.
Papadopoulos, I.( 2006). Transcultural Health and Social Care: Development of Culturally Competent Practitioners. Elsevier Health Sciences.
White, K. (2009). An Introduction to the Sociology of Health and Illness. SAGE :Publications Ltd.
To what extent would Nietzsche agree or disagree with Rousseaus account of the origin of morality
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According to Nietzsche in The Genealogy of Morals, what is the origin of morality (i.e., the values ‘good’ and ‘evil’)? To what extent would Nietzsche agree or disagree with Rousseau’s account of the origin of morality? Whose account is more convincing and why?
Introduction
The ability to coexist in a harmonic manner in the society is largely depended on the capacity to uphold moral behavior. This is defined by numerous virtues that are prescribed by the society and which guide human behavior. Assumption of vices is likely to culminate in conflicts that have far reaching implications on the wellbeing of humanity. In the current society, there are so many sources of morality that range from the legal provisions to religion. These are acceptable by the population and they prescribe acceptable behavior that seeks to further the good in the society. Notably, the relative knowledge about this was generated some time back and has been passed on through time. The truth that these repositions hold is often largely at stake, especially considering the fact that in most instances, these are not factual and therefore can not be tested and distinct findings employed in shaping ethical values.
From a philosophical point of view, the issue of origin of morality did raise various controversies as different philosophers had varying perceptions about the same. While some contended that morality was an intrinsic aspect of human creation, some posited that it was largely shaped by the society. It is in this consideration that this paper provides a comparative and critical review regarding the origin of morality as presented by Nietzsche and Rousseau. In order to enhance a harmonic consideration, it will begin by reviewing the positions of each of the philosophers with respect to origin of morality. Then, it will underscore the inherent differences in the perception by the two philosophers. Finally, it will assume a viable position and defend this through credible argumentation.
In his review, Nietzsche ascertains that morality and values are a common aspect of human relationships. He indicates that his quest for knowledge regarding the origin of good and evil was stimulated way back when he was only thirteen years. In this regard therefore, he shows that his prepositions are non academic in nature. According to him, the ideal society is comprised of both the good and evil man. He indicated that God is the sole source of good as well as evil. Thus the human perception of these ideals has far reaching implications on his welfare. Nietzsche notes that these ideas as presented by man are very demeaning because they confine the same to a certain way of life. He posits that since God is the source of the values and virtues that define morality and righteousness, the conception of man with regard to this is unfounded.
The assumption of specific positions in this regard can be implicated for the slow rate of economic development. This is because of the prescriptions that these present to the behavior of man. Nietzsche fails to understand why humans consider values to be good and vices evil. He speculates that perhaps exploration of the behaviors and characters that are considered evil is likely to yield beneficial effects. Although it can be seen as danger in the short run, abandoning vices according to this school of thought denies the society a chance to benefit immensely from the conceived long term effects that are associated with the same.
In addition, he indicates that morality can also be perceived as a social aspect that has evolved over time and as one that was created accidentally. This perception accords morality a distinct time in history. In this regard, it is certain that Nietzsche considered this aspect to have been developed and introduced in the human thought at a distinct time. In addition, he argues that just like humanity, the moral conception is also not pure and in some cases it tends to be erroneous. As such, he suggests that it needs to be accorded a lighter and cheerful perception and employed more frequently in human relationships and interactions. This would enable humanity to be flexible and utilize the same for its advantage rather than perceive it as an absolute aspect that is rigid and one that requires minimal modifications.
Rousseau on the other hand perceived morality to be a conception that is shaped by societal perceptions. He explains this by indicating that devoid of the societal construction, man can be considered a very noble being. He had some degree of intrinsic goodness when he assumed a state of nature. This in this respect can be likened to the nature of animals and plants. According to him, this is the status that man assumed prior to civilization and creation and development of societies. Thus it was entirely characterized by good values and limited knowledge with regard to values, virtues and vices and the role that these play in society. This state of affairs however changed when civilization was introduced and respective societies created. In particular, it introduced knowledge of values, virtues and vices and the relative activities such as corruption. The subsequent experiences of man made him very unhappy and with time, he conformed to the societal ideals.
In his review, Rousseau also indicates that the state of nature is characterized by a high level of brutality. This was contributed to by lack of fundamental morals and laws that are imperative in guiding social behavior. Notably, this preposition was opposed to the initial views that indicate that the state of nature is ideal. Rousseau ascertains that the moral wellbeing of man is in most instances determined by the conditions of the society. In such as situation, it is indicated that man is likely to assume competition for resources with his fellow men. Because of the threat that the rest of the men pose, he is in most instances compelled to form alliances that are referred to as a society .This then puts forth specific conditions that members need to conform to. These conditions are what culminate in loss of vital ideas that prescribe ethical human behavior because they tend to favor certain segments of the society.
Activities such as arts and sciences according to Rousseau can be blamed for the inherent societal problems that have undermined the ability of man to uphold righteousness. This has been achieved through the development of knowledge by various segments of the society. As such, the governments and other individuals that are well endowed with regards to resources have continuously deprived the rest of the population their important rights to liberty. Material progress according to him has compromised the ability of the society to uphold viable relationships. Increasingly, these are broken apart by suspicion, fear and jealousy.
These conditions also lead to a state of inequality as some parts of the population tend to have more resources than other segments. Rousseau argues that this prompts the formation of laws and morals whose main aim is to protect the wellbeing of the disadvantaged in the society. In this consideration therefore, Rousseau considers the origin of morality to be ingrained in the inherent societal inequality that characterizes the current world. In addition, he indicates that morality and politics are intricate aspects that are inseparable.
The perceptions of Rousseau with regard to morality differ significantly from those of Nietzsche. From the preceding analysis, it is certain that Nietzsche believes that God is the sole source of morality that comprises of both good and evil. This is exemplified by the story of creation that ascertains the independence of man from morality and shows that God was the entire source of good and evil. With respect to the former, he points out that God created a world that was filled with goodness. However, he later introduced evil that tempted man to fall in the sins. The consequences for this have been felt in numerous generations.
Rousseau on the other hand believed that morality is socially constructed and is not related to any way to the divine nature. Unlike Nietzsche who perceives man to be independent of morality and even encourages him to avoid strict adherence on the provisions that morality presents, Rousseau contends that man plays a critical role in shaping the societal ideals as well as morality. Rousseau indicates that the contribution of man to this can not be underestimated. In particular, he cites that man is responsible for formulation of the various values that define the virtues, values and vices that define moral behavior.
It is also clear that unlike Nietzsche who considers morality to be an event that has evolved through time, Rousseau contends that this is a process that is contributed to by numerous factors that are intricate and augmenting in nature. In particular, he shows that this is influenced by various aspects of human wellbeing that range from jealousy to fear and selfishness. Notably, this leads to the formation of laws and moral values that are equally complex in nature. At this juncture, it can be contended that the latter perception of the origin of morality is more comprehensive than the former.
From the analysis, it can be argued that the argument provided by Rousseau is more practical and therefore relatively convincing than Nietzsche’s. To begin with, it is worth acknowledging that with the advent of science, different factual information provides alternative explanation with regard to the evolution of man. Although religious views also present varied perceptions, it should be appreciated that the increasing objectivity requires verifiable and convincing explanations. However, concerns involving God can not be verified scientifically because of the complex nature of the same. Basing on this, it can be argued that the credibility of the information provided in the creation account is at stake. This is further compounded by the controversies that surround the authorship of the bible.
Inequality has proved to be a very thorny issue since historical times. Historical evidence ascertains that the most powerful in the society used to amass resources at the expense of the weak, helpless and poor. This is a natural conception that is typical of an environment that is characterized by limited resources. Regardless of the fact that nature could be the only one prevalent competition is bound to occur. In this regard therefore, it can be posited that unhealthy competition led to inequality that then prompted the society to create laws and prescribe values accordingly. Failure of this is likely to have led to imbalances at different levels.
Social dynamics indicate that the powerful in the society always have an upper hand in resource allocation and utilization. Since this power is already vested in them by the natural forces, according them absolute power is likely to aggravate the inequality situation. As such, laws are mandatory and they play a fundamental role of modulating social power. Also, it is note worthy that these laws are derived from the values and virtues that define acceptable behavior. The values are important as they prevent occurrence of social conflicts that could threaten the holistic welfare of humanity.
In addition, it can not be disputed that knowledge tends to have vital implications on the holistic being of an individual. Essentially, it provides the same with vital information as well as awareness about various issues. Knowledge has the capacity to alter attitudes and modify the behaviors of the respective individuals. It imparts skills that are fundamental for pursuing various aspects of an individual’s life. At this juncture, it can be ascertained that increased scientific knowledge contributed to the enlightening of the affected individuals with regard to resource exploitation. This could have led to increased competition which could have culminated in erosion of vital values that governed social behavior.
Arguably, when operating as an individual, man tends to make individual decisions with a great percentage of comfort as well as behavior. However, increased competition forced him to join others in order to work together for a common good. Thus he was forced to sacrifice the independence in order to benefit from what the society had to offer. With regard to accumulation of property and assets and property, this implied that he could not easily get the same as it belonged to other individuals. Formulation of vital laws and moral standards is instrumental in providing guidance when resolving such issues.
Conclusion
From the research, it is certain that morality and laws are fundamental for harmonic co existence within the society. They provide guidelines for acceptable behaviors and help to prevent conflicts in the society. As it has come out from the study, the religious sources of moral values can be considered to be subjective and therefore not credible for explaining origin of morality. Rousseau’s perception seems to be more credible because it addresses real life issues that the society continues to grapple with. Nevertheless, both approaches provide useful insights about the origin of morals.
Bibliography
Friedrich Nietzsche Genealogy of Morals. USA: Vintage, 1989.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Philosophy, Morality and Religion. USA: Dartmouth, 2007
European Union Enlargement
Introduction
To understand the pros and cons that the European Union faces on matters involving enlarging the union we must dig a little deeper into the history of the union. The European Union was formed immediately after the Maastricht treaty signed in 1992. The union had twelve members initially they included, Greece, France, Denmark, Italy, Belgium, Germany, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Portugal, Luxembourg, Ireland and Spain. These were the first members of the European Union until 1995 when Austria, Sweden and Finland later joined the union (Manu, 2003).
Currently the union has twenty five members with ten more being added in 2004.Bulgaria and Romania later joined in 2007. Almost a population base of about five hundred million people is under the prominent union membership in Europe. The Union decided to go for a monetary and economic union in 1992 that included the use of a single currency in Europe (Therborn, 2000). The move however took ten years to become a reality and in 2002 national currencies were replaced by euro notes.
In recent years the Union has established itself as a pace setter and a mega competitor in the global business market. Due to the increasing integration the European Union has established strategies to enhance their performance. The strategies include welfare reform, social convergence, decentralization, enlargement and monetary unification. The European Union has started expanding admirably outwards in a bombastic manner (Wailer, 2002). This was evident when the chairman of defense and foreign policy in Russia Mr. Sergei Karaganov claimed that Europe was replacing America as its economic partner. The two partners had a common interest in geopolitical and economic issues.
Turkey is most prospective country to join the Union with the aim of proving that Islam is compatible with western values and culture. All Balkan nations are also eligible enough to become potential members of the union. The move is aimed at ensuring peace is maintained. All this activities prove that the union is becoming very powerful. This enlargement however may cause the splitting of the union due to various social economic and political challenges facing it (Coughlin, 2002).
Lately the European Union has been torn apart by two conflicting visions. One of the ideas is the Euro-nationalism or multi polarity that Tony Blair intensely opposes. Where some members want the European Union to be an independent actor and lock out the United States. The other idea is referred to as Atlanticism where the western alliance is maintained fully. When polls were conducted results showed that many members wanted the EU to be a super power like America. A few activities by the increasing size of the AU members are causing the European Union to fall behind economically (Kotler, 2002). They involve the supervision of the Euro, the argument on Iraq and the constitution.
The foreseeable constrain that seems to be facing union has given the union a wakeup call to cautiously evaluate the challenges and risks of trying to expand and increase more members. Experiences that were observed from the previous expansions are being analyzed. Where from 1986 during the southern expansion Portugal and Spain sought admission in the European community. The two were weak economically and the procedure of admitting them was made problem bearing and very lengthy. Matters of agricultural overproduction seemed to be the most disastrous due the burden the problem would cause on the European budget (Archibug, 2004).
What top officials are afraid of mostly is the eastern expansion and the economic consequences that will be verified. Communist heritage has taken over and many states have their concentration on the industrial sector rather than on the tertiary or agricultural sector. The Union will suffer a severe financial burden of about €6 billion every year. This money will be used to boost the underdeveloped agricultural sector in the new member states especially in the area of technological advancement. The financial constrain will cause discontent among existing the old members. Existing member countries will face a mega financial load beginning with budget cuts since new members will be payees rather than payers (Hedley, 2005). Italy and Spain all from the Mediterranean are predicted to cause the cuts.
Another problem presumed to have a major consequence socially after the enlargement is the rights the new members will gain after gaining citizenship of the European community. The fresh members will have the right to work and settle almost everywhere in the community. This could result to a situation where many people pour into the original member states in order to acquire jobs. Most European countries are also struggling with high unemployment levels thus the idea of bringing in a new population would worsen the situation (Falk 2006). This would prove to be huge liability especially to countries like Italy, Britain and Neo-Nazis in Germany.
Another social economic effect that would occur after the expansion would be that of increased languages in the European Union. The languages would obviously have to be more than the current twelve for effective communication and unity. This would automatically mean that the administrative body would be increased. Adding more additional costs of operating the union due to huge wage bills and bigger management responsibilities (Swift, 2002).
The historic event should not be viewed as tragic since a few positive results would be noted .First ethnic integration would be achieved which is a social benefit and a huge step towards fighting ethnicity in Europe. Due to the inter mingling of diverse cultures strong bonds of affection and understanding would be established thus a peaceful coexistence (Stubb, 2004). The competitiveness of the EU globally would prove to be unique against Asia and America thus improving the general economic status of the EU members.
Crucial institutional reforms have to be under taken however for the sake of the decision making process. The process is proving to be very lengthy and tedious. The possibility of making a common agreement is proving to be virtually impossible. There is a huge risk that an increase in members would intensify competition among individual states and also result in the formation of new coalitions in the union. Assumptions also speculate that an eastern expansion would cause a power shift towards the reintegrated Germany. This is as result of heavy reliance and bondage between Germany and the prospective members (Coughlin, 2002).
The agricultural policy in Europe should however be reviewed since it affects both the existing members and the prospecting members. The policy of subsidies and milk quotas that handles overproduction in many areas should be reviewed to avoid infuriating farmers. This is because many farmers cannot operate without the subsidies (Swift, 2002). The issue should be dealt with well even before considering the issue of adding more members to the union.
Another economical consequence resulting from the expansion of the EU is the loss of sovereignty. The existing members have already been absorbed by the move and it’s clearly visible where complete severe erosion of sovereignty even in the social sectors such as the education and health sector is unmistakably visible. However the EU clearly states that there is to be a complete loss of sovereignty in the currency politics and economic sector in accordance with the Maastricht treaty as soon as you join the Union (Hedley, 2005). Many of prospective new members however are willing to surrender their sovereignty in order to be absorbed by the EU.
The most controversial move by the EU was on the adoption of the Euro. The move had its own share of success but still had disappointing results. Positive critics pointed out that the use of a common currency in Europe is still of the most tremendous inventions by the union. Many people are up to date mesmerized by its ability to establish itself firmly in just ten years. In America it took 53 years just to have a common currency (Archibug, 2004). Through the use of the Euro the risk of exchange among member countries has been eliminated. The main aim of developing a common currency was to boost economic growth and trade. Expanding and enlarging may assist the Union especially when a country has made a financial mistake and all other members have to pay for it .If the union has many members the risk will be spread and hence a faster recovery from the ordeal.
The Euro however has shown some disappointing results. 12 of the countries that embraced the Euro still indicate an unemployment level of up to 9%. This could be as result of economic growth stagnation in Europe (Kotler 2002). When the economic growth was compared relatively to other countries such as China and America a much slower growth rate was noted in Europe. Even though the productivity per worker in both countries is similar a difference is observed. Germany is to be blamed for the affliction due to its financial constraints. Recent study has also proven that enlargement of the EU is also causing the fall back. When more members were added to Union more glitches involving unemployment, single mothers, the disabled and the retired seemed to add more salt to the injury. The high public expenditure and the slow growth rate also seem to be unsustainable. Critics presume that if the problem persists political tension may develop among the European Union members.
The enlargement of the Union will generally affect the constitution making process. If more countries enter the union then disputes on constitutional bases will arise. A keen investigative research will inevitably prove that member countries had to actually amend their constitution to conform to the European law. In Netherlands for example, the ladders used by window cleaners were very long and needed to be shortened. This made people insinuate that the programs operated by the EU were wasteful and corrupt. To illustrate how the matter on enlarging the European Union should be handled on a serious note, terrorist threats have been made by extremists arguing the EU is invading the political rights of certain groups (Therborn 2000).
The new members fall way behind the older members substantially in competitiveness and innovation. Among the countries that joined the European Union in 2004 Slovenia is ranked to be the best innovator. Followed closely by Estonia, Romania and Bulgaria respectively as ranked by the index ranking carried out by global competitors. Certain new members resolutely oppose any move to harmonize tax policies and stubbornly favor a national veto in social policies and tax. Their fear lies on the fact that they could lose foreign investment due to low wages and low taxes (Manu, 2003). The situation might foster a destructive environment rather than a reconstructive environment.
Enlargement is also predicted to suffer a structural draw back in comparison with the older members who are way ahead in GDP per capita. The transition challenges involve improving the infrastructure, developing the service sector, solidifying both the judicial system and the market structure. This structural drawback is estimated to slow down the pace of converging GDP. There is a huge enlargement fatigue especially where social issues are mentioned, destructive consequences are to be expected on matters of how to access social welfare such as health. There is a prediction that the European social model will be eroded (Coughlin, 2002).There is a lot of fear especially among old members that another enlargement will pose a lot of poverty disparities ranging from energy poverty, child poverty and health poverty.
Below is a statistical analysis of the countries with the highest GDP in the year 2011.
CountryGd p value
United States15078
China7322
Japan5897
Germany3807
France2778
Brazil2493
United Kingdom2432
A study made by the United Kingdom council however was sent out to prove that economic results of enlargement were actually successful. The council noted positive results in both the new member countries and the existing members. Extensive study concluding that the 5th enlargement had acted as a catalyst for economic modernization and dynamism for the European Union. Both members were well equipped to tackle globalization challenges (Falk, 2006).
The research also confidently stated that after asymmetries were taken into account .The assumptions were that the economic impact of enlargement on the new states was approximately twenty times far much better than the older ones. This is because the new states were able to create awesome business environments almost similar to those found in existing member’s countries (Kotler, 2002). As they were able to attract more foreign investors in both the privatization and the banking sector.
The research concludes that it may be difficult to speculate the fate of the European Union’s enlargement policy. Basing its evidence on the firm position taken by France while handling Turkey and the premature admissions made in signing in Romania and Bulgaria in 2007. EU’s capability to engross new members is in serious doubt too (Wailer, 2002). In general nevertheless the research claims enlargement has led to the prosperity of Europe’s economy.
In conclusion I feel that if Europe decides to nurture the union ambitiously then economic prosperity in the nation will no longer be a dream. The situation however, should be handled cautiously. Europe has very many diverse cultures and ethnic groups clearly demonstrated by the incidence that happened in Yugoslavia. A firm establishment of the union would mean a common monetary unit, a common bank and more importantly a single unitary government (Swift, 2002). This would result to a super power almost similar to the United States therefore; in my view other European nations should be permitted to join the Union if they meet the set standards. The decision making process also seems to be affecting the Union .The NAFTA model should therefore be fully implemented to tackle the problem.
References
Manu and Mussler. 2003. The Economic Constitution of the European Community. From ‘Rome’ to ‘Maastricht’, European Law Journal 1, pp. 5-30.
Stubb, Alexander C.-G. 2004. A Categorization of Differentiated Integration»; Journal of Common Market Studies 34, pp. 283-295.
Therborn, Göran.2000. European Modernity and Beyond: The Trajectory of European Societies, London: London university press.
Wailer, Joseph H.H.2002.Community, Member States and European Integration: Is the Law Relevant? Journal of Common Market Studies 21 , pp. 39-56.
Coughlin, D .2002. European Union enlargement. Brussels. Retrieved June 11, 2013, from <http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/enlargement.htm>
Kotler Ph. 2002. Marketing Management in Europe. New Jersey: Business expert press.
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