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Dimensions of Human Sexuality Development
Dimensions of Human Sexuality Development
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Introduction
Human sexuality is a broad concept that involves the interrelationship between biological, physiological and socio-cultural dimensions. There are numerous definitions that have been advanced for the term ‘human sexuality.” Among the most comprehensive definitions is one that is given by the Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECU) which regards human sexuality as encompassing sexual behaviors, beliefs, knowledge, values and attitudes of individuals (Carroll, 2009). SIECU suggests that there are three dimensions of sexuality which can grouped into; biochemistry, anatomy and physiology of the sexual response system; orientation, identity, personality and roles; and relationships, thoughts and feelings. As Carroll (2009) explains, the expression of sexuality in human beings is influenced by cultural, ethical, morals and spiritual concerns. On the other hand, the Alberta Society for the Promotion of Sexual Health (ASPSH) perceives human sexuality as a concept that can be understood in different ways: it can refer to reproduction, the roles played by individuals in the society or the feelings that people have about themselves (Golanty & Edlin, 2011). ASPSH perceives human sexuality as encompassing the physical, spiritual and emotional feelings, thoughts and responses of individuals. Considering the above definitions, it is clear that the concept is not limited to how human beings have sexuality or engage in sexual activities. Generally, human sexuality behavior is more about who individuals are than what they do. The overall human sexuality development of a human being is influenced by psychological, biological and socio-cultural factors. This paper adopts a comprehensive approach through exploring the psychological, socio-cultural and biological dimensions that influence the growth and development of human sexuality.
Some scholars have chosen to concentrate on the biological perspective of human sexuality. Generally, studies that have concentrated on biological dimensions of human sexuality have focused on genetic development of reproductive systems and physiology of sexual arousal and coitus. As Greenberg, Bruess and Conklin (2010) explain, knowledge about how human body works biologically forms the basis of human understanding of sexuality. Essentially, factual information is usually given priority by individuals in the process of decision making. As Greenberg et al (2010) argue, one cannot think critically about sexuality without having understood the facts involved. The greater the knowledge that one has about how the body works, the more likely that he/she is going to comprehend sexuality. As well, the knowledge that an individual has about sexuality influences his/her drive to take responsibility for own sexual health. On the other hand, some scholars have focused on the behavioral or psychological aspect that affects human sexuality. In particular, psychological dimensions have much to do with how an individual’s sense of being affects sexuality. Others have sought to explore the socio-cultural dimensions of sexuality. The socio-cultural dimensions of sexuality encompass all social and cultural factors that influence an individual’s thoughts and actions. Unlike other scholars who emphasized that the perception of human sexuality is largely shaped by biological or physiological factors, Tiefer (as cited in Golanty & Edlin, 2011) emphasizes on the significance of socio-cultural factors.
Considering the different perspectives, it can be argued that human sexuality involves various dimensions which can be summed up into three major categories – biological, psychological and cultural dimensions. This paper describes the three major dimensions of human sexuality and evaluates the influence of each on sexuality. The paper examines the influence of biological, psychological and socio-cultural factors in influencing sexual behaviors, sexual behaviors, beliefs, knowledge, values and attitudes of individuals at local, national and global levels. Although they are discussed separately for clarity, it is essential to note that every sexuality-related decision made by an individual is influenced by more than one dimension. The figure below describes how the three major dimensions interact to shape an individual’s sexuality.
Figure 1.0: The individual in the society SourceIndividual
Socio-cultural Factors
Religion
Ethical influences
Socioeconomic factors
Multicultural influences
Media influences
Media Influences
Biological Factors
Genetic Development
Physiological development
Psychological Attributes
Source: Bolin (2009)
Biological Dimension
Biological dimensions of human sexuality involve two components; the genetic and physiological components (Greenberg et al, 2010). Biological dimensions influencing sexuality are summarized in table 1 below.
Table 1: Biological dimensions influencing human sexuality
Sexual Dimensions Male Female
Chromosomes XY XX
Gonads Testis Ovaries
Hormones Androgens Estrogens
External genitalia Penis, scrotum Labia, clitoris, vaginal opening
Internal accessory organs Vesicles, vas deferens seminal prostate Uterus, vagina, cervix, fallopian tubes
Secondary sex characteristics Enlargement of sexual organs, sperm emission, growth of pubic hair Menstruation, breasts
Sexual orientation Heterosexual, bisexual, gay Heterosexual, bisexual, lesbian
Source: (Greenberg et al, 2010)
Genetic Component
There is vast research into human sexuality that has concentrated on genetic factors that lead to sexual differentiation. A research on human sexuality carried out by Fisher (as cited in Rathus, Nevid & Fichner-Rathus (2007), for instance, focused on genetic aspects that influence sexual behavior. According to Fisher, human beings have a common nature that their sexual behavior is influenced by a set of unconscious tendencies that are encoded in their genes. Rathus et al (2007) support this view and suggest further that although individuals are not aware of these predispositions, they influence and motivate their behaviors and actions. Fishers recognizes the impact of social-cultural factors but he believes that biological make up of human beings forms the essence of sexuality (Rathus et al, 2007).
According to Rathus et al (2007), the genetic difference between men and women makes sexual reproduction possible. The difference emanates from the fact that females have two X chromosomes while male have two different chromosomes; X and Y. Therefore, the presence or absence of Y chromosome is the basis of the difference between male and female. The absence of Y chromosome leads to development along female lines. As Rathus et al (2007) explain, the Y chromosome has a unique part called the sex-determining gene region of the Y chromosome (SRY) which aids in development of a male. During early stages of fetal development, the SRY facilitates the development of primitive gonads into testis instead of ovary. The resulting testis releases testosterone which aids in the development of male reproductive organs or the male genitalia. As well, the testis produces Mullerian Inhibiting Factor (MIF) which plays the role of suppressing parts of the fetus that would develop into female reproduction organs. As well, the testosterone produced by the testis stimulates the development of certain parts of the central nervous system, which increase the likelihood for the fetus to portray behaviors associated with male after birth (Rathus et al, 2007. Researchers have determined that there could be other effects that occur in the central nervous system that are stimulated by the testosterone and SRY but are yet to be identified.
Therefore, the genetic development in the initial stages of fetal development leads to clear differentiation, such as the suppression of the development of the ovary and the development of testis. However, the processes of development of some parts of the body such as the nipples of male are not fully suppressed (Bolin, 2009). Despite this, conflict does not arise since such parts of the body do not play a direct role in the process of reproduction. Normally, genetic XX and XY status of female and male respectively is the basis on which an individual’s identity is developed. Attribution to a certain gender determines the societal or cultural roles that are assigned to an individual by the society after birth. In some cases, the process of sexual differentiation can go wrong, resulting in intersex conditions. However, the local society tries to find the gender which best matches the degree of differentiation of individuals with such conditions and fixes them in that gender (Bolin, 2009). In some cases, genetically may influence an individual to be attracted by people of the same gender. However, depending on local and national culture in which an individual is brought up, homosexuality may be allowed or disallowed. For instance, the law of US recognizes the rights of gay couples, whereas gay relationships are legally discouraged in Saudi Arabia.
Physiologic Component
The role of physiological factors in influencing sexuality has also been given adequate attention. For instance, the famous models of human sexual response cycle developed by Masters and Johnson focused more on physiology (Bruess & Greenberg, 2008). According to Bruess and Greenberg (2008), the biological dimension of sexuality partly involves the physical appearance of human beings. It involves the development of physical sexual traits, the general growth and development of human body, the ability to control fertility and to reproduce and human response to sexual stimulation. As Bruess and Greenberg (2008) explain, the development of physical sexual characteristics starts immediately after conception and changes continue during the life time. However, the functioning of human reproduction organs starts during the puberty stage of human development. There are numerous physiological changes that occur in human body from during puberty and adolescent stages, from 12 to 19 years. Among the changes that are experienced by boys are growth and enlargement of sexual organs, growth of pubic hair and production of sperms (Carroll, 2009). On the other hand, girls experience changes such as growth of breasts, growth of pubic hair and menstruation. The development of such physical characteristics influence changes in biological functioning related to sexuality in human beings, which is part of the natural functioning of the body.
Psychological Dimension
As mentioned earlier, an individual’s sexuality is also influenced by his/her sense of being, although the sexual activity is physical. As Carlson and Heth (2007) explain, body image is the main factor that affects sexual wellness in human beings. A positive self image is usually associated with the feelings of sexual wellness. On the other hand, a negative body image can lead to psychological disorders such as binge eating disorder, bulimia, anorexia, and muscle dysmorphia (Carlson & Heth, 2007). As well, negative self image can lead too drug abuse (use of diet pills and steroids). According to Kim and Monique (2007), psychological dimension of sexuality is one of the learned aspects of sexuality. Human beings start developing feelings and attitudes about themselves very early in life. As soon as a child develops awareness of the world, he/she starts getting signals from significant others telling them how to act and think. A child is learn about what right and wrong, the meaning of words such as “cleanliness” and ‘dirty” and not to mention some parts of the body. Children also learn to be careful about interacting with certain people and to avoid discussing controversial topics with certain people. As well, individuals learn to hide feelings that they think that others would not find acceptable and they learn how to pretend. Some people grow up with more negative experiences than others. Regardless of whether an individual grows up with negative or positive experiences, his/her learned responses from the society become integral to sexuality (Kim & Monique, 2007)
Socio-Cultural Dimensions
As mentioned earlier, the psychological and biological components interact with cultural and social factors to shape an individual’s sexuality. According to Tiefer (1995) (as cited in Golanty & Edlin, 2011), the ever-changing environment in which people live influence and modify their experiences and sexual identities. This perspective to sexuality is called social constructivism. Scholars who support this perspective argue that individuals acquire and assemble values, skills and meanings from significant others or other people in the society. This, perspective forms the basis for the socio-cultural dimension on sexuality, which encompasses all social and cultural influences that affect individual actions and thoughts, both contemporarily and historically (Rathus et al, 2007). For instance, historical influences become evident when one considers certain customs as well as the roles of males and females. It is also clear that each individual is surrounded by social influences in his/her sexuality. The major sources of influences are multiculturalism, religion, ethics, socio-economic status, politics and the media.
Religious Influences
Religious beliefs influence feelings about sexual behavior, morality, adultery, premarital masturbation, contraception, abortion and divorce. A meta-analysis conducted by Hammer (as cited in Rathus et al, 2007) indicated that there are numerous factors that influence the attitudes of college students towards sexuality and controversial issues related to sexuality. Despite this, religion has emerged as one of the major influences in most studies. The impact of religion on sexuality is well illustrated by the findings of research survey conducted by UCLA Higher Education Research Institute on college students since between 1999 and 2009. In a survey conducted in 1999 on fresh college students, 40% of the respondents indicated that it is not wrong for two people who like each other to engage in sexual intercourse even if they have not known each other for a long time (Golanty & Edlin, 2011). This percentage increased to 41.8% and 42.2% after the survey was repeated on the freshmen in 2001 and 2002 respectively. In a survey that was carried out on freshmen in 2005, the percentage rose to 46.2%. The results of the survey are presented in the figure below:
Figure 2.0: Level of freshmen’s support for sexual intercourse
Source: Golanty & Edlin (2011)
In 1999, abortion was supported by 50% of the students but this percentage increased to 53.9% in 2001 and 55% in 2002. The number of female who supported the idea was almost equal to the number of men in all the three surveys. In 2005, the percentage declined to 53.9% whereby the number of males and females supporting the idea was almost equal. The percentage rose to 56.9% and 58.2% in other surveys that were conducted in 2007 and 2009 (Golanty & Edlin, 2011). These findings are presented in the figure below:
Figure 3.0: Level of freshmen’s support for abortion
Source: Golanty & Edlin (2011)
Generally, in all these instances, UCLA Higher Education Research Institute established that the support for the controversial sexual issues was negatively related to strong attachment to religion. Throughout the years, UCLA Higher Education Research Institute has found that strong attachment to religion influences the frequency of certain forms of sexual behavior, number of sexual partners, types of sexual behaviors, the age at first sexual intercourse, marital satisfaction and even standards regulating sexual behavior before marriage (Golanty & Edlin, 2011). Another study conducted in Southeastern University indicated that students who reported weaker religious feelings and less frequent worship attendance were more likely to participate in controversial sexual activities in comparison with those who reported stronger religious feelings and frequent worship attendance (Golanty & Edlin, 2011). In some countries where a given religion is emphasized nationally, such as Islamic nations, the level of support for controversial sexual activities is likely to be very low.
Multicultural Influences
Studies have shown that culture influences an individual’s perception of sexuality (CoonDennis & Mitterer, 2007). To facilitate better understanding of the issue, it is prudent to differentiate between ethnicity and ethnic background. Ethnicity refers to the degree to which an individual identifies with a certain ethnic group. On the other hand, ethnic background is in most cases determined by birth and is related to an individual’s race, native language, religion and country of origin. Coon and Mitterer (2007) highlight that people from cultural backgrounds in the United States have different perceptions of sexuality. The differences are quite apparent since the percentage of immigrants in United States is high. A study conducted in several colleges in United States by Leitzmann et al (2007) indicated that 1 out of the 10 respondents was from another country. Further, Leitzmann et al (2007) found that each student’s cultural background influenced his/her understanding of body, morality and health. In turn, this influenced his/her support for abortion and the use of contraceptives. Students brought up in US perceived abortion as a contraception. On the other hand, most students from other countries perceived abortion as primary method of birth control. Leitzmann et al (2007) support these findings and add that women in the US might have as many as five abortions while women in countries such as Saudi Arabia might not be willingly engage in abortion.
Another study conducted in Brazil found that men from other religions other than evangelistic ones were more likely to report having had unprotected sexual intercourse with other persons other than their intimate partners in the last one year (Leitzmann et al, 2007). Region of residence was also found to influence inclination to engage in extramarital sex. The study showed that men in northern Brazil were three times more likely to have engaged in extramarital sex over the last one year compared to men in Southern and Central of Brazil. The findings from another study conducted in China showed that Chinese women with beliefs that women are supposed to be subordinate to men were likely to be subjected to intimate partner violence. 45% of the women surveyed reported that they either had been sexually or physically abused by their intimate partners, with 26% reporting that they had experienced intimate partner violence during the last 12 months. The study revealed several factors that indicated adherence to gender roles, which were also highly associated with experience of intimate partner violence. For instance, women who believed that men are justified to beat their wives, women who left jobs because of their partners and women who believed that wives should never deny their husbands conjugal rights were more likely to report cases of physical and sexual abuse from their intimate partners (Leitzmann et al, 2007).
There are numerous examples of how multicultural influences can affect an individual’s perception of sexuality. In Turkey, for instance, virginity is highly valued and virginity tests are conducted in many cases. In schools, principals are allowed to expel girls who have lost virginity through sexual intercourse (Schacter, 2011). In 2001, it was declared that only virgins could be nurses. Schacter (2011) noted that in Mexico, cervical cancer is sometimes treated using hysterectomy. Schacter (2011) suggested that this could be caused by inadequate knowledge as a result of multicultural influences. In Sweden, issues related to sexuality are more openly discussed. Teens are usually provided with information about sexuality, including how to use contraception. Parents are also likely to know about the sexual activities of their children. As well, abortion among the youth is subsidized by the country’s government (Schacter 2011). According to Schacter (2011), these practices and attitudes have led to lower rate of sexual transmitted diseases and teen pregnancies in Sweden in comparison with United States.
Socioeconomic Status
Sexual behavior and attitudes are also shaped by socioeconomic status, at least within the same community or ethnic group. For instance, studies carried out globally have shown that individuals with lower incomes in the society tend to have different attitudes regarding sexuality and are more likely to have children outside marriage and to have sexual intercourse at an early age (Russon, 2009). Sexual behavior has also been shown to be influenced by education. For instance, studies have shown that individuals who have attended college are more likely to have many sexual partners compared to individuals who have not attended college. As well, studies have shown that more educated individuals are more likely to masturbate compared to persons with less education (Russon, 2009). Socioeconomic status has been shown to have a greater influence than just on sexual activities. The poor are less likely to access birth control, proper health care, positive sexual models, day care for children, and care during pregnancy (Russon, 2009).
Ethical Influences
Ethical influence with regard to sexuality refers to questioning of the way people treat themselves and how they treat other people. Individuals often come across situations in which they need to refer to ethical standards of behavior to establish solutions to sexually-oriented ethical dilemma (Heon-Jin Lee1 et al, 2009). An individual may come across situations where he/she has to decide whether or not to engage in a certain sexual behavior, whether it is ethical to use a prostitute, whether it is right to use power influence to obtain sexual partners, whether it is right to engage in sexual activities with a minor, or whether it is right to disclose own sexual history to a new partner. It is essential to note that ethical issues are different from legal concerns. In the US, for instance, prostitution is not allowed, except in some parts of Nevada (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2011). The law disallowing the activity may be applied uniformly to persons found engaging in prostitution. However, ethical standards require that morality of engaging in prostitution be given consideration. The ethical questioning may require one to reconsider decision in a case where the accused has decided to sell her body as the last resort to survive. The law in most cases has set an age of maturity, after which individuals are deemed of age to engage in sexual activities (Weiten et al, 2011). In the US, the law has set age of maturity at 16 years. Thus, having a sexual partner who is below that age is illegal. However, in Tokyo, Japan, the age of maturity for girls is set by law at 12 years. Although this is legally allowed, an individual may not find it ethically correct to engage in sexual activities with a 12 year old partner. The way an individual considers such ethical questions and makes judgment on what is right or wrong greatly shapes his/her sexuality. An individual’s ethical decision-making influences the extent to which he/she takes responsibility for his/her sexual wellness (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2011).
Media Influences
For a long time, media has been recognized as one of the major factors that shape people’s perspectives regarding sexuality, sexual behavior and gender roles. Sexuality has for a long time been depicted in the media, either to promote goods and/or services of for entertainment reasons (Nothup, 2013). The media modifies the presentation of sexuality to the extent that the public is hardly provided with realistic depictions. In Western nations today, television shows and films are filled with content that portrays “double meaning” comments and sexual activities. In the US, sexual images are increasingly being portrayed in the music industry. Most of the currently popular songs contain sexual content. Books, Tabloids and Magazines have contributed immensely to the sexual content that bombards the public. This is quite evident in the magazines and other related materials that are displayed in supermarkets (Kilchevsky et al, 2011). Sexual themes are increasingly being used to advertise products and services. For instance, advertisements are popular that tell the public that people look sexier and more attractive when they buy the right cloths, cars, toothpaste or soap (Kelly & Breslin, 2010). It has been argued that if they can choose, advertisers and the media in general can portray realistic sexual information to the public that would promote sexual wellness, rather than cause damage to the public (Kim & Monique, 2007). For instance, advertisers and the media might show how relationships and sexuality can be effective, how physical and verbal interactions can be respectful, importance of engaging in responsible sexual activities, healthy sexual encounters, importance of using condoms and contraceptives to prevent sexually transmitted diseases and unwanted pregnancies and how to respond to controversial sexual topics and situations.
Political Influences
Public policy also plays a role in shaping individual’s perceptions towards sexuality as well as the resultant sexual behavior. For instance, the Healthy People projects established by the US government in 2000 and 2010 attempt to use health promotion to increase the number of women who seek prenatal care, decrease frequency of unwanted pregnancies and increase public awareness of sexually transmitted diseases and AIDs (Durham, 2012). As well, the constitutional right for free speech established in the US allows for the distribution of pornographic content in the internet. As Durham (2012) explains, political elections (including voting on ballot and selecting elected officials) can affect the policies formulated regarding sexuality and overall thinking about human sexuality. In the US, for instance, the Republicans Party which occupied the White House between 2002 and 2008 had strong influence on policy issues related to sexuality. The party openly supported limiting of the rights of women to carry out abortions and emphasized on abstinence from sexual activities before marriage. In doing so, the party aimed to control sexually transmitted diseases and pregnancies among young people (Durham, 185). The party went as far as to provide funding to certain educational programs that taught the public about the importance of abstinence. The Republicans Party was also not very supportive of homosexual relationships. In the elections that were held in 2008, many policy issues that were discussed were related to sexuality. During presidential campaign, debates and platforms included discussions about comprehensive sexuality education versus abstinence-only, stem cell research, rights for homosexuals, and legality for abortion (Durham, 2012). Among other sexuality issues, these issues, continued to influence politics in the US after Barack Obama was inaugurated as president in early 2009. In turn, political issues have continued to influence sexuality in many ways (Durham, 2012).
Interactive nature of Human Sexuality Dimensions
As it has been established, there are numerous biological, social-cultural and physiological factors that influence the nature of sexual interactions between human beings. As such, the extent to which an individual is sexually active is a result of the various factors. Sexual arousal, for instance, is a physiological function. Psychologically, an individual’s feelings of self-worth and body image may inhibit getting involved (Santrock, 2008). A man’s arousal or drive for action may be inhibited by the feeling that he/she is not attractive or good enough for a certain woman. Arousal may also be inhibited by lack of self-worth. Cultural factors help to develop sense of what is attractive in the eyes of individuals (hair style, weight, skin tone and height). Ethical and legal considerations affect sexual undertakings, as do religious beliefs. In addition, sexual undertakings are influenced by role models set by friends and family members. General, all these dimensions interact constantly and influence the sexuality of human beings (Santrock, 2008). Carlson and Heth (2007) explain that the biological aspects work together with other dimensions of human sexuality to produce total sexuality. In turn, total sexuality forms part of an individual’s total personality.
As Light et al (2006) illustrate, the first comments that are made after delivery of a child declare its biological gender: “it’s a girl” or” it’s a boy.” In response, the parents may purchase cloths that are designed for the child’s gender. As soon as a child starts comprehending the world, he/she learns about his/her gender. Boys and girls are taught to play in different styles and are provided with different sets of toys. Children are also taught about gender roles and responsibilities. During teenage stage, boys are, in most cases, allowed to be sexually active. However, girls are usually disallowed from engaging in such activities. Psychologically, boys are encouraged to suppress their emotions, whereas girls are allowed to show them. Generally, this illustrates how social cultural dimension interacts with biological and psychological dimensions. In turn, the interaction between the dimensions makes an individual’s sexuality (Light et al, 2006).
Conclusion
In conclusion, human sexuality can be understood as the sum of the biological, psychological and socio-cultural factors that influence sexual development, behaviors and responses. Biological dimensions of sexuality involve the genetic and physiological development of a human body. As demonstrated in the analysis, the biological development with regard to sexuality begins after conception, during development of the fetus. Genetic development leads to growth of sexual organs, resulting in sexual differentiation between male and female. Physiological development also starts after conception but its impact is more evident from puberty stage, characterized by factors such as enlargement of sexual organs, growth of beards and production of sperms in boys and menstruation and growth of breasts in girls. On the other hand, psychological dimensions encompass refers to behavioral factors affecting an individual’s sense of being and hence, shaping perceptions and attitudes towards sexuality. The feeling of sexual wellness is associated with responsible sexual behavior. On the other hand, feelings of unworthiness may lead to irresponsible sexual behaviors.
Socio-cultural dimension involves all the social and cultural factors that affect sexual behaviors and attitudes towards sexuality. Among the major socio-cultural factors that affect sexuality are the media, socioeconomic status, religion, multicultural factors, ethical influences and political influences. As demonstrated in the essay, individuals with strong religious beliefs are less likely to engage in controversial sexual behaviors. As the attachment to religion decreases, the likelihood of engaging in controversial sexual activities increases. It has also been shown that individuals with lower incomes are likely to have children outside marriage. Factors such as education have been shown to have an impact on an individual’s inclination to engage
Cultural awareness
Cultural Awareness
Introduction
Cultural awareness, as an essential tool in the establishment of culturally appropriate services, demands understanding on how the culture of a people may influence their views, basic assumptions, values and behaviors. It acknowledges the fact that individuals are shaped by their cultural background, which impacts on how they understand and interpret their surroundings; perceive themselves and relate to others. Cultural awareness does not require knowledge of all cultures or possess all responses to be culturally aware; rather, cultural awareness aids in reconnoitering cultural issues more thoughtfully. Info regarding precise cultural practices facilitates increase in our familiarity by providing a synopsis of cultural features and concerns. However, ascertaining individual desires and preferences is of great importance, with an understanding that persons should not be judged by their cultural norms.
Contained by any culture, are peoples’ ideals, conduct and beliefs which can differ immensely. Variances may transpire due to time of entrance in an area, span of settlement, socio-economic upbringing, education levels, rural or urban habitation, identification with cultural and religious background, and different life familiarities – including the familiarity of migration. Cultural awareness involves an understanding of the migration course itself. Migration is a significant stimulus on a person’s life, with conflicting effects due to the diverse familiarities of pre-migration, migration and resettlement. A number of post-migration trauma comprise: the hassle of separation from native land, language barriers, social-economic position, associates and support networks, culture shocks and the unending trauma of pre-migration experiences such as political instability, psychological and physical abuse, war and displacement ,among others.
Culture is described as an assimilated pattern of human conduct which embraces opinions, communication, actions, customs, philosophies, ethics and foundations of a racial, ethnic, pious or social habits, language, appearance, dressing, music and dance, attitudes and beliefs, time consciousness and interpersonal relationships. There is a difference between cultural sensitivity and cultural awareness. Cultural sensitivity initiates with the understanding the dissimilarities amongst cultures and placing worth in this diversity. Cultural awareness, on the other hand, involves developing sensitivity and bearing with other ethnic groups through change of attitudes and values. This implies familiarity with selected belief systems, behaviors, values, history and cultural characteristics of another group.
Though a culture has many features, we look at three main features; that culture is dynamic, multidimensional and learned. Looking at whichever culture, one needs to appreciate the fact that it is always changing. Culture is not static. It is always varying, budding, transforming into something new. Culture is dynamic as societies are dynamic. Subsequently as culture is made up of the persons that belong to it, it is continuously restructured by the same persons. Ideas are transmitted and deciphered from one generation to the next. At times, ideas are comparable as they are passed down through generations, though most often than not, some group ideologies may bring subtle changes in the system. However, the subtle or magnificent changes in culture must be appreciated in order to remain relevant. Cultural dynamics, on the other hand, are not absolute neither are they can all or none situation. There is a degradation of values in any culture, with subtleties of racial predisposition standing as a valid example.
Just as cultural dynamics exists, so can a person belong to multiple cultures. This implies that a culture is multifaceted. People are not only defined by a single characteristic, but also belong to different cultural groups’ altogether. The fact that we can learn about others brings out the third characteristic that a culture is learned. Individuals are not born having knowledge about their culture, but are guided overtime and let into the pros and cons of their culture, the values and beliefs, as well. Culture is not only learned from parents and relatives, but is also taught through media and strangers. Other characteristics of culture include language and customs, mission and values, climate and habits and last but not least, symbols.
The sum of enterprises operational globally is rapidly rising, with the world initiating international firms, increasing innovative destinations in the business’ industry. Owing to high competition, companies functioning internationally are confronted by greater challenges than before. Going global is linked with new and unaccustomed challenges that the company must handle. Culture stands out among the obstacles upsetting the entire enterprise. Culture influences businesses in different ways, some of which are: culture collisions, language problems and pricing difficulties, which are common especially on the onset. Handling these complexities and satisfying the natives’ expectations may prove difficult. Globalization offers no room for mistakes, which can be difficult to correct and in the end may be interpreted as disrespect for international culture. This can be a loophole that can terminate the entire operation of the business.
A company therefore must conduct feasibility studies before entering the international market, to familiarize itself with the customs and manners of the new culture. Since international corporations have distinct ways of conducting business, especially when it comes to planning, the new entrant business must in all means create a positive impression. Culture, therefore, can influence foreign investment both positively and negatively. Respect for international culture through embracing their values, beliefs , norms, not forgetting learning their language, creates the right impression, giving then a competitive edge through built up trust overtime.
When navigation global business, consideration of the political, economic and legal environment is of great importance. The social-cultural environs are a more important facet. Companies that attempt to be a stride ahead of their competitors need to be cognizant of the importance of the home country influence. Enterprises consequently should not abandon influential and cultural disparities. A company pursuing global markets must think through cultural dissimilarities before making entry. These dissimilarities could be of language, political states, culture and religion and even demand types. Fashioning partnerships in the new country would make it tranquil to make an entry into a new market.
A company’s market access choices are one of the most imperative issues before entering a different market. Research shows that if there is a high cultural variance between the new market and the local market, then, joint ventures are preferred. This is explained by the fact that if both the new and local firms merge; costs associated with learning a new culture are reduced. This is because; the goodwill of a firm affects the mode of entry. Culture may upset the behavior of individual executives and assistants as they interact with others. Anticipated behaviors are likely to be linked to cultural standards. Some cultures are modest while others are intricate. Some cultures are defined by certain mythologies, which limit their freedom of choice in terms of consumption, dressing and association. Feasibility studies therefore constitute a major determinant in the success of the global business. For example, some groups of people are prohibited from taking certain foods, therefore minimizing cases of disrespect, aswould be termed by the natives.
Markets all around the world are in progress to become more comparable to those in the 70´s because of technological compensations and swelling international travel. Companies that deal with high value, low price and homogeneous products can win out over local companies that offer modified products but for sophisticated prices. This is elucidated by the fact that people’s inclinations are more homogenous. For companies to gain preference, they must hold stout global trading and investment positions. First, the state must uphold economic competitiveness. Second, it must result trade guidelines so that other countries open r doors for its products, willingly buying from as well as selling to the country. Third, the firm must develop a global orientation that sanctions them to operate as multinational enterprises, not just as aboriginal companies doing business abroad. Furthermore, the best way for companies to realize competitive advantage is with innovation.
The major challenge encountered by companies is the strategy that guarantees an entry point in the global market. Management of business processes across universal boarders is challenge in global business currently. The global economy has fashioned business environs that necessitate companies to look beyond traditional and simple local operations and instead develop a global perspective and approach. Techniques a company undertakes, from local market to new market is of pronounced prominence in deciding the company’s success. Small and medium size businesses that have taken the resolution to internationalize and global firms that want to develop into international markets are both encountered with the task of selecting the best organizational engagements. Many features hearten companies to initiate operating internationally. The utmost palpable are: Anticipation for economies of scope and scale, knowledge Curve effects resultant from augmented outputs, the likelihood of the actuality of beneficial markets in foreign countries.
Advancement in communication, enhancement in travel states of affairs, lower tariff blockades among others make overseas markets more available, creating more prospects for companies to go global. Going global signifies several establishments that enhance value to activities. Industrialized and service companies go in global fairs for several reasons and outs. While some major in an overseas country because local markets are rapidly growing, other companies may basically follow their home customers who are going global.
Price plays a significant role in forming customer worth and building customer affiliation. It is among the four fundamentals of the marketing mix and a pointer that influences consumer choice. Pricing is amongst some intricate decision areas faced by global marketers. Market prices at the consumer level are more challenging to regulate in global markets than in local markets. The price is unwarrantable because it upsets the firm’s capacity to subsist in the business. The price is also sophisticated, as of the multiplicity of markets, with their diverse environs such as ,social, technological, political , legal, consumer physiognomies, etc. Thus, price is a concern that can distress the global business and the company’s co-operations in the alien country.
Cultural influences have an imperative influence on the flow of business. Every society possesses some foundations of culture exhibited through: language (verbal and non verbal), religion, manners and customs, values and attitudes, aesthetics, education and social institutions. Adoption of these essentials for a global company, rests on its edge in the market involvementThe most imperative concern for a alien company is cultural investigation, which embracesinformation that aids the company´ planning decisions.
language is one of the key concerns when it comes to dialogues with trade associates from other cultures. Though it is not always essential to discern the partner’s language, numerous studies, confirm that a connection subsists between profound business ventures in international markets; with the company embracing the customer’s. There are various spects about culture treflected in a negotiation situation. Foreign investors are not only familiar with their native language, but are also conversant with that of their new destination. This gives them a competitive edge in their operations, as it enhances communication in the organization.
For cultural dissimilarities to reduce, they ought to monitored. there are four tactics for handling differences in culture. they include; building a strong corporate culture internationally, developing a general technical or professional culture worldwide, relying on strong financial or planning systems and Leaving each culture alone. No matter how comprehensive the negotiation process may turn out, cultural norms and values of the participants influence the manner in which the process is carried out. Negotiating styles are different as different cultures adopt distinct approaches.(Rugman, 2000).
The present multidimensional environment faces a number of complexities and challenges that require close collaboration between the military and a couple of organizations within a joint, interagency, multinational structure including non-Governmental organizations. For the collaboration, some issues are yet to be met for effective operations. Issues such as shared goals, mutual trust, shared power, clearly defined responsibilities and roles, mutual respect have impacted the collaboration among work forces within the JIM environment. There are some challenges faced in collaboration though, some of which are; communication, rapport development, negotiations, planning and decision making, potential differences, prejudice, diverse negotiations, stereotypes, among others. Despite the challenges, positive reports concerning shared identity and promotion of personal relationships, stands out in the efforts to enhance collaboration .the military, through Canadian Forces personnel, tackle number of complexities and challenges in the present environment, which calls for diplomacy and development goals, as well as security and defense goals. With their operations concentrated in conflict urban centers differentiated by cultural, ethnic and religious affiliation.
Nowadays, military lawfulness and efficacious operations are not defined by martial power solely but needs confidence and support from the local population. This is because the driving factors of conflict are ideological, ethnic, religious and material demands. Therefore, the military cannot conduct its operations in isolation, but need to incorporate actors such as the local community, correction officials, development officers, diplomats, police officers, among others, who are in pursuit of similar goals such as peace stability. That calls for participation in both non-traditional activities such as development and traditional activities such as defense.
The benefits of operating in a JIMP framework include increasing the coordinated action on behalf of the CF and other players to secure mission goals and objectives; socializing the CF and other organizations to the challenges that each confront in the security environment and to how their unique contributions can serve to collaboratively address these; increasing awareness of and respect for the resources and contribution of diverse players; desiring to work collaboratively to achieve goals in a non-hierarchical manner; and ultimately fostering more strategic decision-making and performance .( Leslie et al. 2008)Factors Influencing Collaboration
There is a variety of dynamics alleged to influence collaboration, counting external, individual and organizational factors. Individual factors are the exceptional features of the persons who signify an association throughout collaboration. Distinct features include n individual’s knowledge (e.g., of collaboration partners’ perspectives, norms, systems, etc.); skills (e.g., communication skills, interpersonal skills, conflict resolution skills, etc.) and abilities (e.g., cognitive abilities); attitudes and values (e.g., willingness to collaborate); and other characteristics (e.g., experience, personality, etc.). (Schein, 1990, p. 111). Organizational culture and Governance additional significant organizational issues. Governance consists of the guidelines and bylaws for proper management of an organization, guaranteeing accountability for those persons’ stand-in on behalf of the organization. An organizational culture is viewed as shared assumptions developed to aid in decision making and problem solving, passed on to every member of the work force, that regulate the code of professional conduct. Conventionally, decrypting an organization’s culture and the consequences of this culture on distinct participants is a composite mission.
One way to theoretically streamline the concept is to envisage culture as demonstrating at three levels, developing to advanced levels of generalization, vacillating from visible artifacts to the organization’s ethics, standards, ideologies, and beliefs, and ultimately to its fundamental suppositions. The organizational culture shapes the principles, methods and behaviours of its participants. External factors denote the settings of the condition in which collaboration transpires. Factors that seem pertinent in an operational setting comprise the level of risk, the uncertainty of the situation, time pressure, and national culture. (Mariano, 1998)Process of Collaboration
The factor linked to the course of collaboration encompasses the conditions for alliance, the impetus to collaborate, and the authentic procedure of collaboration. Conferring to study, there are a number of circumstances essential to guarantee operative collaboration among performers in place of diverse organizations. These include shared goals, shared values, shared risk and shared power as well as mutual trust (Austin, 2000, Phillips & Graham, 2000, Rapp & Whitfield, 1999, all cited in Foster & Meinhard, 2002). Other scholars propose that collective reverence can expedite collaboration, which necessitates acquaintance with another organization and its inimitable input to accomplishing collaborative objectives (San Martin-Rodriguez et al., 2005). Lastly, evidently established roles and accountabilities are imperative for nurturing operational collaboration, and this lucidity may be fostered through influential schemes and progressions, such as documentation, policies, standards, among others, which are conversed amongst collaborative allies through communication and interaction (San Martin-Rodriguez et al., 2005).
The course of collaboration also comprises the impetus to cooperate. Organizations may be motivated to collaborate for a number of reasons. For example, organizations may have to collaborate by necessity, in order to fulfill some legal or regulatory requirements placed on them, or because of scarce resources. (Foster and Meinhard (2002) .Collaborating by stipulation entails partial choice substitutes and the premier notch of interdependence. According to Foster and Meinhard(2002), another motive to collaborate is reciprocity (i.e., organizations have mutuallybeneficial goals and interests that are obtained through collaboration). Additionally, organizations may cooperate because a superior, more influential organization is considering to take over one smaller organization; consequently, the superior organization will direct collaboration with the lesser organization to accomplish its goal.
An additional motive for collaboration is efficiency. collective exertion can aid decrease costs. Foster and Meinhard also elucidate that administrations are enthused to collaborate with more organizations for the reason that collaboration upsurges stability, reliability and predictability. Lastly, a business may join forces to augment its institutional legitimacy. For the resolves of this outline, the diverse impetuses to collaborate have been abridged as fitting two groupings of drivers: internally motivated interdependence motivations and superficially driven interdependence stimuli. The former signifies a candid inclination to collaborate and comprises intentions like mutuality, and stability, reliability and predictability, whereas the latter confers to a drive to collaborate grounded on exterior forces, such as the necessity, proficiency, and probably the heightening of established acceptability.
The circumstances behind the alliance and the stimulus to collaborate will influence one another, and this is signified by the “double-sided arrow” on the demonstration. Both similarly unswervingly impact alliance. Lastly, collaboration itself is comprised of a number of does, as well as communication, evolving rapport, conciliation, scheduling and decision-making, and recalibrating .communication denotes information distribution, sympathizing and empathizing with others’ points of outlook and situation .Negotiation is similarly an indispensable part of the collaboration, and to a number of persons, it calls for embracing a collaborative attitude, compared to a competitive one. Competitive diplomats characteristically follow their own desires and goals, whereas co-operative (or collaborative) diplomats guarantee that the desires of exclusive parties are changed and that utmost worth for everybody is similarly achieved (Goodwin, 2005). Evidently, there are supplementary negotiating styles or methodologies, counting evading (i.e., deciding not to negotiate), compromising (i.e., both parties consent to a number of concessions to meet midway), and accommodating (i.e., giving in to another’s wishes or desires frequently by renouncing one’s personal opinion ). (Kilmann & Thomas, 1975). Relationship conserving negotiation styles comprise compromising, collaborating and accommodating.
Collaborating varies from merely cooperating or obliging for the reason that factual collaboration strive for a win-win outcome rather than merely assenting to the desires of other negotiating parties. This will simply be accomplished by engendering innovative policies and elucidations. Some argue that the collaborative negotiation requires, to some extent, a competitive approach (Goodwin, 2005), as this will avert one from being taken advantage of (obliging) or settling down on less than what can actually be realized through negotiation (cooperating). Indubitably, it should be pointed out that there are occurrences in conciliation where the unsurpassed choice given the conditions may be obliging (e.g., have desecrated another’s trust), cooperating (e.g., short time frame and confidence in one’s conciliation partner) or evading (e.g., when on is ad libitum to take another action).
Ensuing negotiation, cooperative partners must strategize and select the suitable strategy to apprehend their precise goals and fulfill their desires. As such, decision making and preparation will also be constituents of an alliance. In addition to collaboration being a dynamic progression, those involved need to uninterruptedly monitor and appraise the progression and recalibrate their situation as significance.Outcomes of CollaborationPerformance
Collaborative exertions are instigated in order to attain some kind of goal or final culmination state. The capability to attain this end state is a scale of the enactment of the cooperative team, and the result of the collaborative determination. Performance will be a consequence of collaborators’ cooperation, preparation and decision-making and it will influence the collective impression of alliances as well as any successive collaboration.Cumulative impact
The effects of alliance can be direct and ancillary, and temporary and long-standing, and the collective impact construct is envisioned to indicate the totality of all these stimuli. Thesignificance of reasoning at an effects-based level was manifested in the discussion above.Personal relationships
As well as being entrenched in the progression of alliance, personal interactions are an imperative result of collaboration. Effective collaborations will probably effect in constructive personal affiliations whereas ineffective collaboration may effect in negative personal ffiliations.Collective understanding
Collective understanding denotes the pooled knowledge of one’s association partners. The data in the paper above presented very slight evidence of cooperative understanding among collaboration partners in the JIMP operational environment. In fact, as stated above, in the case of the NGO community, the CF may not have a very good understanding of the community in general as a result of cooperating only with the “disorganized, unprofessional groups.”Satisfaction with the process
Satisfaction with the process of collaboration will have a stern control on forthcoming collaboration struggles. In fact, negotiation research highlights the role of bargaining history in future negotiation situations, in that history tends to repeat itself (O’Connor, Arnold, & Burris, 2005, as cited in Thompson et al., 2010). For example, the deals that people reach in one negotiation instance influence their subsequent bargaining experiences (good leads to good, bad leads to bad). Moreover, reaching an impasse in one negotiation increases the probability of reaching an impasse or obtaining low joint value in the next negotiation. Negotiation will have an obvious impact on collaboration in the JIMP operational environment. Indeed, one NGO participant recognized that current collaboration experiences in Afghanistan will shape the perceptions of the civilian community and their future civil-military interactions.
In conclusion, culture awareness is of great importance especially when it comes to investments, security and organizational operations. Culture is what defines a people. An understanding of one’s culture and that of others enhances security and integration among organizations and communities at large. Some of the characteristics discussed above are important in understanding various institutions both at the organizational level as well as in the community level. Discarding the wrong and barbaric teachings of culture and embracing the positive aspects of the same enhances development, peaceful resolutions, security and most important of all, enhances unity, co-operation and understanding. At the organizational level, cultural awareness enhances good working relations among the staff and apparently leads to increased output and hence growth in the organization up to globalization. As culture is dynamic, we should also embrace the change as it comes, for a better and promising environment and world.
Work cited
Gaston, Jan. Cultural Awareness Teaching Techniques. Brattleboro, Vt.: Pro Lingua Associates, 1984. Print.
Spindler, George Dearborn, and Louise S. Spindler. Pathways to cultural awareness: cultural therapy with teachers and students. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Corwin Press, 1994. Print.
Schmidt, Velma, and Earldene McNeill. Cultural Awareness: a resource bibliography. Washington, D.C.: National Association for the Education of Young Children, 1978. Print.
Tomalin, Barry, and Susan Stempleski. Cultural awareness. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993. Print
Dimensions Of Ethical Leadership
Dimensions Of Ethical Leadership
Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u Corporate reputation PAGEREF _Toc379627051 h 1Strategic steps to remedy the concerns PAGEREF _Toc379627052 h 2Coca-Cola’s environmental initiatives PAGEREF _Toc379627053 h 3
Corporate reputationCorporate reputation is a concept that can be termed as soft. This involves the overall estimation of how an organization is viewed by both internal and external stakeholders on the basis of its actions in the past and the probability of its behavior in the future.an organization might have a different reputation wit its different stakeholders according to the experience they have when it comes to dealing with the organization. Corporate reputation therefore plays an important role when it comes to the performance of the organization and its social responsibility. The overall success or failure of any organization depends on its reputation. Corporate reputation is termed as a great intangible asset that ahs a tangible value. This means that the company’s reputation is sometimes unwritten its value is quite obvious. Corporate reputation has been the focus of many organizations since this can bring reimbursement when it comes to the performance of the organization (Harrison, 2005).
There are many factors that can be listed when it come to the characteristics that stakeholders might use when they are determining the reputation of a company. These factors include a strong ethical bearing. This means that the operations of the organization are conducted in an ethical manner all the time. Another characteristic is employee relations; employees need to be treated well and respected. A workplace that is welcoming meaning that the workplace should be always clean and in a safe manner. High quality item is another characteristic used in the determination of a company’s reputation. The company should be one that produces products of the best quality. The management of the organization is another characteristic that requires managers in the company know the values and ideals of the company thus passing them down to the workforce. Another factor is the financial status of the organization which means that the company’s financial records are strong and stable. Social responsibility is a characteristic which means that the organization has strong ties with the community where it is found.
All these factors are not usually consistent wit all the stakeholders of an organization. This is due to the fact that the different stakeholders have their own perceptual view what is required in each company so that it can have a strong reputation. The stakeholders who that are affected directly by negative events in organizations will shift their perception when it comes to the reputation of the organization.
Strategic steps to remedy the concernsAs the new CEO of coca cola I would work towards restoring the organization’s reputation and ensure that I completely eliminate any ethical dilemmas that might come up in the future with stakeholders. First of all I will ensure that coca cola regains the trust which the consumers had. This is through the assurance of the production of high quality products. I will also ensure that correct statements showing the organization’s financial position as per the time period that ahs been stated. I will also ensure that competent staffs are employed in order to ensure that effective and efficient decisions are made. I will ensure that the company engages in social activities so that its reputation can be restored. This will be through providing school fees for needy students. There will also be engagement in activities that discourage environmental pollution. I will ensure that codes of conduct are set for the organization that will help in dealing with ethical issues that might arise in the future. There will also be a performance appraisal and reward system for the purpose of employee motivation (Benson,2004).
Coca-Cola’s environmental initiativesCoca cola has joined other companies when it comes to addressing the issue of climate change and recycling. There are many initiatives that coca cola has launched such as Drink2Wear which is clothes from plastic bottles that have been recycled, signing of UN global compact dubbed Caring for climate: The business leadership platform. Through this initiative coca cola has pledged its dedication to reducing emissions and increasing energy efficiency.it has also cofounded the refrigerants which is an alliance that is aimed at addressing the issue of climate change. All these efforts that coca cola has made towards conservation of the environment are quite sincere .this is because Coca Cola is at the forefront of ensuring that the environment is clean through the initiatives. Therefore we can say that these efforts are not just a mere window dressing but they are sincere efforts as there is a lot of dedication from the company in these initiatives.
References
Benson, D. (2004) .The Coca-Cola Company struggles with Ethical crises.
Harrison, K. (2005). Why a good corporate reputation is important to your organization. Retrieved September 9, 2013 from http://www.cuttingedgepr.com/articles/corprep_important.asp