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Tienanmen Square Massacre
Tienanmen Square Massacre
Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc379188597” Introduction PAGEREF _Toc379188597 h 1
HYPERLINK l “_Toc379188598” Causes of students’ upheavals PAGEREF _Toc379188598 h 1
HYPERLINK l “_Toc379188599” The Nature and Extent of the Massacre PAGEREF _Toc379188599 h 3
HYPERLINK l “_Toc379188600” The Consequences of the Tiananmen Square Massacre PAGEREF _Toc379188600 h 4
IntroductionThe Tiananmen Square Massacre is an incident that took place between April 15, 1989 and June 4, 1989 in the People’s Republic of China. It occurred as a series of peaceful pro democracy demonstrations staged and by led by students together with other intellectuals and labour activists. Many hundreds of civilians were shot dead by the Chinese Army, with the death toll estimated at between one thousand and three thousand only in Beijing. The heart of the demonstrations was in Beijing though other demonstrations occurred in other cities of China such as Shanghai
Tiananmen Square was built in 1651; it is an open square in the centre of Beijing and is one of the largest public squares in the world. It expands to an area of forty and half hectares, where each flagstone is numbered for easy identification in assemblies. It derives its name from the Gate of The Heavenly Peace or the massive stone Tiananmen. It is a well and magnificently designed square for massive gatherings and has been a rallying point for student demonstrations for decades (Walder, &, Xiaoxia. 1-3).
Causes of students’ upheavalsAccording to Kristof, (112), after almost one and half months into the students’ demonstrations for democracy, the Chinese government ordered the People’s Republic Army to open fire on the protestors at the Tiananmen Square in Beijing. Deep in the night of June 4, the troops opened fire on unarmed assembled crowds, armed carriers rolled into the square with armoured vehicles crushing most of the students who were asleep in their tents within the square. The government underestimated number of casualties, although, several hundred to several thousand casualties were estimated.
Wright, (121–132) argues that there has consistent growth of resentment among university students and others in China for political and economic reforms. The country has had a remarkable growth in the economy and liberalization, with most Chinese people being exposed to foreign ideologies and standards of living. The remarkable economic growth was accompanied by much advancement in China coupled with many modes of prosperity for most citizens. These benefits in economic growth were accompanied by negative price inflations together with massive opportunities for corruptions within the ranks of the government officials. During the mid 1980s, the government had advocated for scientists and intellectuals to take more active roles in politics, though the students saw this as not enough, and their demonstrations called for more individual rights and freedoms. Between 1986 and 1987, this student led demonstrations made the hardliners in the Chinese Communist Party and government to take a hard stance to suppress the bourgeois liberalism that had encouraged the pro democratic reforms (Timperlake, 123).
The death of Hu in mid April was one of the major catalytic chains of events that led to the uprising in 1989. Hu had become a martyr because of his hard line stance in the promotion of democracy and his cause for political liberalization. Particularly, on the day of his funeral, many students gathered at Tiananmen Square demanding more democratic and political space. Many weeks succeeding the funeral of Hu in April the 22nd, the students continued to converge at the square in crowds of varying sizes. The students were eventually joined by other likeminded citizens such as individual seeking socio-political and economic reforms. Similar demonstrations cropped up in other major cities of China especially Shanghai, Xi’an, Nanjing, Chengdu, and Changsha. Beijing’s demonstration is the one that called for more international media attention. The many international journalists were present in Beijing partly because of the international visit by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev which coincided with the rising demonstrations. During the last fortnight of May, martial law was declared in Beijing with the army troops surrounding the city, and made many attempts to reach the square which was thwarted by many citizens blocking their way and flooding the streets (Becker, 8).
The Nature and Extent of the MassacreOn April, the 15th, 1989, the vigil students gathered at the Tiananmen Square to commemorate the death of Hu Yaobang, who was a progressive reform minded leader, who sought freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and the empowerment of the young generation. The prodemocracy movement was calling for change in government, political liberalization, and an end to corruption. The protestors displayed Lady Liberty signalling a desire for freedom and an open system of governance. The protest was largely non violent with very broad opposition to the government, and the situation was near a civil war. On the night of June 3-4, tanks and armed troops approached the Tiananmen Square, opened fire and crushed those who tried to block their way. When the soldiers reached the square, the few thousand of the remaining protestors chose to leave the venue rather than continue to continue to confront the military. There were intense sporadic shootings during the day, and the military forcibly moved in against the protestors. The military completely took control of the square by June the 5th
The movement earned commendable support for its agenda and sympathy abroad, as the incident received wide media coverage. This was the most potent challenge to the legitimacy of the Communist Party’s authority since the reign of Mao Tse Tung in 1949. Hundreds of protestors were presumed dead, many wounded, and many more imprisoned. The military action was delayed by inside factional struggles among the leaders and fear of international shame.
The Consequences of the Tiananmen Square MassacreThe effects of the Tiananmen Square Massacre crackdown saw many civilians dead, inured or imprisoned. Many foreign governments became aware of what was happening in China. The United States sanctioned diplomatic and economic embargoes with many foreign governments criticizing the Chinese government handling of the protests. Most media houses in the western nations labelled the incident a massacre, and thousands upon thousands of protestors were suspected to be dissidents by the Chinese government. They received sentences of varying periods of time while others were executed. Many of the protest leaders escaped to other countries and seek political asylum in the western nations. Jiang Zenim replaced the disgraced Zhao Ziyang as the party secretary general.
The Chinese government tried to down play the incident and its significance, by labelling the people protesting as counter revolutionaries. The governments data released on those who died stood at 241 including government troops, and about seven thousand wounded. The government has tried effectively to suppress references to the incident; even public commemorations related to the incident have been banned. However, Hong Kong’s residents have continued to stay an annual vigil to commemorate the anniversary of the crackdown. President George W Bush acting on the premise of public outrage, imposed minor diplomatic sanctions, although, he subordinated human rights issues to United States business interests. Bill Clinton labelled Bush as coddling dictators, and his policies followed the pattern of engaging the Chinese government commercially, with the view that trade and openness would facilitate political reforms (Langley, 16).
Life in China changed after the Tiananmen Massacre, the government became very strict, and the university students had to take a test every year to sign that they totally agree with the government policies and strictly adhere to it. People all over the world were not happy with China’s government mode of response to the protests, and the freedom people were taken away. The incident brought to the fore the atrocities that the Chinese people were suffering under their government (Becker, 8).
Conclusion
The demonstrations in Tiananmen Square were the most challenging in the Communist state of China. The military offensive was the worst form of atrocities committed by the Chinese government on its people, when the demonstrators who were mainly students staged a peaceful demonstration at the Tiananmen Square for seven days. Many were killed in the aftermath of the political violence that saw diplomatic sanctions imposed on the Government of China. The ferocity of the attack took many people by surprise including the protesting students and other citizens of the world’s countries. Army troops cleared the square not withstanding re assurances that there would be no violence, however, many were killed, maimed, exiled or imprisoned. The government of China was not sensitive to the freedoms that the people were yearning for, and the communist leader Deng Xiaoping could have personally ordered the shooting of the unarmed citizens to shore up his leadership.
Works cited
Becker, J. “Protests spread in China”, “Manchester Guardian Weekly”. 30 April 1989; p. 8
Walder, A & G Xiaoxia. “Workers in the Tiananmen Protests: The Politics of the Beijing Workers’ Autonomous Federation.” Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, no. 29, January 1993. pp. 1–2. Print
Wright K. the Political Fortunes of the World Economic Herald, Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs, nr 23, pp 121–132 (1990). Print
Kristof, N “A Reassessment of How Many Died In the Military Crackdown in Beijing”. The New York Times. (1989).
Langley, A. Tiananmen Square: Massacre Crushes China’s Democracy Movement. Compass Point Books, p. 16.(2009). Print
Timperlake, Edward. (1999). Red Dragon Rising. Regnery Publishing. Print
EU audit reform (December 2013)
EU audit reform (December 2013)
Presented by
Institution
Professor
Date
Introduction
The European Union’s (EU) internal markets commissioner, Michel Barnier, signed the December 2013 EU audit reform into law. On December 17, 2013, EU member states and the European parliament came into a preliminary agreement about the new regulation on audit. The compromised texts were endorsed by COREPER in December 18, 2013. On that same date, commissioner Barnier welcomed the agreement reached between the two bodies on the reform of the audit sector. He claimed that the agreement formed the first step towards increasing audit quality and attracting more investors, which was an essential ingredient for economic growth in Europe. The main reason for the agreement between EU member states and the parliament was to promote effective functioning of financial and non-financial markets through strengthening the role of auditors. In addition, the agreement aimed at ensuring growth of economic agents and markets with more meaningful, transparent, and reliable information at an accepted cost.
The following discussion will analyze how the recent agreed EU Audit reform meets the objectives in providing audited financial statements that are reliable and independent as stated above.
Discussion
Part one: Identify and describe the EU Audit Reform of December 2013. Explain how the reform will ensure the market will be provided with ‘more reliable, transparent and meaningful information.’
In December 17, 2013, the EU politicians stroke a last minute deal aimed at reforming the EU listed audit market. The EU audit reform was agreed in a discussion between EU member states and the parliament that forced all companies to change their auditors every ten years, however, auditors tenure have the possibility of being extended if specific criteria are met. According to the new agreement signed by commissioner Barnier, listed companies were expected to change their auditors every ten years, with an option of extending the period by another 10 years if there are tenders being carried out, and by 14 years if the company being audited has appointed more than one firm to conduct the auditing exercise (Crump 2014).
The reform will ensure the market will be provided with more reliable, meaningful, and transparent information through the following:
Improved audit quality:
The new rules required auditors to produce more detailed and clear audit reports that provided the relevant information to investors in order to minimize the expectation gap between what the company expects from an auditor and what an auditor should deliver. The International Organization of Securities commissions (IOSCO) claim that the audit quality and delivery of essential audit services is essential to investors and other stakeholders (IOSCO 2009). Quality audit services tend to attract more investors into a company irrespective of the amount of shares the company has. With the new rules, auditors will be able to promote their organizations and make Europe a more completive market for global investors in the near future (Boeckman, 2013).
Enhanced transparency:
The agreement introduced strict transparency rules for auditors that ensured stronger reporting obligations through their supervisors. In addition, the rule ensured effective communication between auditors and audit committee. With such characteristics of auditors, the markets will be more transparent and reliable. Auditors will be required to report their financial statements through their auditors meaning that company information will no longer be kept in private. Moreover, stakeholders from different member states will be involved in making decisions making the market a better place for any investor.
Better accountability:
Accountability in any business is an important virtue that makes a firm grow and develop. In the past, auditors used to work on their own and make their own decisions on the type of report they ought to provide to stakeholders. This approach led to lack of accountability of many financial records leading to huge debts incurred by nations after the 2007 European financial crisis. With the new rules in place, the audit committee will be responsible for supervising the work of auditors according to the new EU audit reform. This will ensure strengthened competence in all audit processes. Moreover, company shareholders hold 5 per cent possibility of dismissing an auditor should she or he fail to meet the laid down rules. Those who are guilty of bleaching the new rule will face full administration force from the relevant authorities.
On the other hand, the new rules introduced a new regime into the EU member states whose companies were registered under the union. The prohibition of certain non-audit firms from providing non-audit services to their clients was a better move to improve EU market condition. The following move plays a role in limiting risk of conflicts of interests, especially when auditors are involved in decision affecting the management of a company. In addition, the move ensures a ‘self-review’ risk for auditors is minimized hence, allowing a transparent, reliable, and meaningful way of reporting company operations.
On the other hand, the reform will ensure EU market gets a more reliable, transparent, and meaningful information because of the introduction of a more dynamic and competitive audit market. The EU commissioner signed an agreement that ensured a single market for statutory audit. This rule will promote cross border mobility and coordination of auditors to meet the international standards on auditing hence making the firms more competitive both locally and globally. The presence of global completion will allow more investors to spend their resources because of the transparency nature of the EU markets. In addition, the rule provides more choices. The new rules restrict firms from third party clauses imposed on companies. The rule will introduce incentives for joint audit and tendering that will ensure no burdens are present for small audit firms. In addition, the concentration of audit market will be reinforced to ensure meaningful information is provided (Pollitt 2013).
Part 2: Critically evaluate whether or not the reforms will address the problems of independence and reliability of the audited financial statements
The December 2013 EU Audit reforms were introduced to address the problems of independence and reliability of the audited financial statements. A clear look at the rules introduces many questions as to whether the reforms will really address the intended problems. It becomes very confusing to realize that same audit firms are to be rotated in the same area questioning the type of reforms that will take place. However, from the statistics collected since December 2013, the EU member stated have improved their market standards compared to the period immediately after the financial crisis (Great Britain 2013).
Auditors play a vital role in the present society by providing stakeholders with correct reflections of the genuineness of a firm’s financial statements (Zhang 2007; p. 362). The 2007 EU financial crisis has caused the union many losses since 2007 because it extended to the preceding years. Europe has been on the struggle to meet the debts built during the recent years, with the most affected countries being Spain, Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and Italy (Kelly 2011). Since the crisis, the global economy has experienced a stagnant economic growth causing instability to the EU fiscal policies. Despite the huge losses incurred in 2007, most banks received clean bills of health (European Commission 2007). The inspection report form EU member states revealed lack of professionalism by auditors, poor handling of financial statements, and lack of correct thinking in the audits of major companies. The long-lasting relationship between the auditor and their clients caused all these problems.
Statutory auditors play a significant role in certifying companies’ financial statements and ensure companies provide financial information that is in accordance with the standards and frameworks. The new rules have the ability to improve reliability and credibility of the audited statements for the EU listed companies. The most important firms that the rules target are the banks and the financial institutions. The independence and reliability of the audited financial statements however, remains a critical issue to be addressed by the new rules. The proposed rotations are expected to reduce the amount of time an audit firm spends in a single company in order to minimize repeated inaccuracies (Chasan 2014). The problem comes along whereby the listed companies exchange their financial statements and rotating auditors might not be effective enough if the same managers are to operate such firms.
The new rules are capable of addressing the issue of independence especially where independent auditors will be rotated after every 10 years. An independent public accountant performs the functions of transcending any employment relationship with a client. It is the responsibility of a firm to maintain a high level of independence by having a professional auditor. Independence is crucial to audit and the credibility of a financial report because, any operation carried out by an auditor without independence has no meaning. The EU member states discovered the high rate of dependency their listed companies have and came up with the EU audit reform. The major contribution of the report to the independence and reliability of audited financial statements is its ability to promote quality in auditing process. Even with the high rate of corruption and the competitive nature of the listed companies, auditors will be expected to provide detailed financial statements that are not prone to errors and inaccuracies (Jones 2014).
Did the EU member states and the parliament consider some companies could switch their auditors instead of employing new ones? This question limits the ability of these rules to address the problem of independence and reliability. There have been cases where companies plan to switch their auditors between the Big Four instead of employing new ones as stated by the audit reform law. This will lead to a slow growth of the dominated market in the accounting industry hence, limiting the reliability of the audited financial statements. On the other hand, after the 2007 EU financial crisis, integrity became an important virtual to the EU member states. Countries such as China, Korea, and India had undertaken the agreement very seriously during the first years. Europe, however, being the largest economy has failed to implement the rules to the letter leading to low quality audit services that tend to reduce investors confidence in the listed companies (Yao 2014).
Coming up with an international accounting and auditing standards is an essential developmental approach that investors in all sectors love. The global activities of many businesses and investment entities require firms that have the capacity to provide reliable audit reports over many years in order to gain more trust from investors. After the December 17 agreement between the EU member states and the parliament, listed companies were supposed to streamline their services and follow the new guidelines. The introduced rules played a significant role in improving the financial status of most EU member states that had undergone a state of recession since 2007. There was a tremendous loss in the credit markets forcing some countries like China to take huge loans from the United States to support their economy. Presently, China has grown too fast and attracted many investors a clear demonstration of the positive impact of audit reforms.
Initially, listed companies used to appoint their own audit committee without consulting shareholders. The new rules reversed the process whereby appointment of all audit committee must be in the presence of shareholders. The following move has reinforced the audit committee independence and improved on their technical competences because at least two of the committee members must be independent and at least one have knowledge of auditing. The above movement ensured more reliability in audited financial statements compared to the past. Even though some shareholders might come together and select a team of incompetent audit committee, rarely do such instances occur because the company management also screens the list of candidates to select the most competent ones only. Presently, EU listed companies have confidence in all their operations and are sure that their financial statements will balance because they are addressed by qualified people (Mendez & Bachtler 2014; pp. 746-750).
Finally, the EU audit reforms will address the problem of independence and reliable financial statements of the amendment of the Statutory Audit Directive. Public Interest Entities (PIEs) allow their auditors to operate at EU level. The EU level holds the responsibility of supervising all the audited materials based on harmonized framework in order for the process to be effective. Such measures could not take place were it not for the introduction of the new rules. Some member states criticized the EU commissioner Barnier for signing the agreement with the existing Directive that has been in force since June 2008. The problems and weaknesses that have been solved by the new rule were not anticipated after the financial crisis, and the 2008 Directive had no provision for such amendments. The amendment for the December 2013 does concern all audits including those of PIEs (European Commission 2014).
Conclusion
There is no doubt that the new EU rules on auditing have created a lot of positive impact to the markets of the member states. The discussion has revealed that before the introduction of the new rule most companies used to lose much of their revenues to audit firms. The discussion has also discovered that the recently agreed EU Audit reform meets the objectives by providing independent and reliable audited financial statements. The statistics collected from economic journals have shown an improvement in the economies of the EU member states, for instance China, Spain, and Italy. The paper calls for other companies that are in a union like the EU to follow the suit in order achieve a global competitive advantage and attract more investors to their countries.
References list
BOECKMAN, P. (2013). Twelfth annual institute on securities regulation in Europe: overcoming deal-making challenges in the current markets. New York, NY: Practising Law Institute.CHASAN, E. (3 Apr 2014). European Parliament Approves Mandatory Auditor Rotation.
Retrieved from:
blogs.wsj.com/cfo/2014/04/03/european-parliament-approves-mandatory-auditor-rotation/
CRUMP, R. (2013, December 17). Last minute deal pushes through EU audit reform.-17 Dec 2013 – Accountancy Age. Retrieved April 23, 2014, from http://www.accountancyage.com/aa/analysis/2319627/last-minute-deal-pushes-through-eu-audit-reform
EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2013, December 18). Reform of the audit market. – European Commission. Retrieved April 23, 2014, from:
http://ec.europa.eu/internal_market/audi ting/reform/index_en.htm
EUROPEAN COMMISSION. (2007). European Economy, Belgium: European
Communities
GREAT BRITAIN. (2013). Nineteenth report of session 2013-14: documents considered by the Committee on 23 October 2013, including the following recommendations for debate : financial audits : EU regulatory fitness : evaluation of EU legislation : reform of the EU’s staff regulations : the EU and Ukraine : European Public Prosecutor’s Office : reform of Eurojust : regulation of new psychoactive substances : report, together with formal minutes. London, Stationery Office
IOSCO. (2009, September 1). Transparency of Firms that Audit Public Companies. TECHNICAL COMMITTEE OF THE INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION OF SECURITIES COMMISSIONS. Retrieved April 11, 2014, from: http://www.iasplus.com/en/binary/iosco/0909transparency.pdf JONES, H. (2014). EU approves rules to shake up company book-keeping. Retrieved
From:
www.reuters.com/article/2014/04/03/us-eu-accounts-idUSBREA320VT20140403?feedType=RSS&feedName=businessNewsKELLY, K. (2011). The Euro debt crisis and economic theory. U.S: Ludwig Von Mises Institute
MENDEZ, C., & BACHTLER, J. (2014). Administrative reform and unintended consequences: an assessment of the EU Cohesion policy ‘audit explosion’. Journal of European Public Policy, 18(5), 746-765.POLLITT, C. (2013). Context in Public Policy and Management The Missing Link?. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
TRAN, M. (2012). Eurozone debt crisis poses serious threat to emerging markets. Retrieved
from:
http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2012/jun/19/eurozone-debt-crisis-emerging-marketsYAO, W. (2012). Accounting Regulatory Architecture in Asia. Retrieved from:
www.frbsf.org/banking-supervision/publications/asia-focus/2012/april/accounting-regulatory-architecture-asia/april.pdfZHANG, P. (2007). The Impact of the Public’s Expectations of Auditors on Audit Quality and Auditing Standards Compliance. Contemporary Accounting Research, 24(2), 631-654.
Etymology of Adventure
Etymology of Adventure
Name
Institution
Etymology of Adventure
This word originates from the Latin language, and it came from the phrase ad venire. The Latins, however, changed the meaning and pronounced it as adventurus. The Old French, thereafter, borrowed this word and the term they used was aventure (The etymology Library). The Middle English later borrowed this word from Old French but changed it from aventure to adventure. During the course of this transition, the meanings of the words changed as the word was borrowed from one language to another. In Latin, the term advenire meant “to arrive” while adventurous meant “about to happen”. The Old French term aventure was a noun while the verb was aventurer. The middle English version of adventure means a remarkable or a bold taking event, as well as an occurrence. As seen, the word has changed in terms of meaning and pronunciation to illustrate the impact of socio-cultural factors (Raaflaub, 2016). The study of words is critical because it helps people to understand the meaning and origin, as well as the development of the term.
The word adventure has been used through time since it started in the olden Latin culture. The Latins combined “ad” that means “to” and “venire” meaning “to arrive”. The term has been changed during the transition from one culture to another throughout history to refer to something analogous to the fluke that occurs to anything that contains an inherent risk (The etymology Library). The meaning of “adventure” has developed through risk/hazard, c.1300 to extreme undertakings in the late 14c and thereafter to an exciting incident. Earlier in the 13c era, the word also meant a miracle or an account of spectacular things (Raaflaub, 2016). The German term Abenteuer is one of the borrowings from the French and it apparently distorted by the impact of abend meaning “evening”. The meaning of this term, adventure, has changed as different cultures make adjustments regarding the definition and pronunciation. Throughout its usage, people have used the word in literature, education, media, politics, tourism, as well as other sectors.
The connection of Adventure to the society
The word has been understood by the community to mean exploring different geographical areas. When people say they are going on an adventure, the society thinks that they are going to explore different cultures. A memorable experience is the dream of most members of the society because they believe adventures are enjoyable and thrilling. The word, however, has been perceived to be related to evil deeds. Most people have watched movies and series that indicate the negative consequences of adventure. People have believed that specific experiences are perilous and they ought to bring devastating effects. The youth has perceived adventured to be joyous, and this has influenced most of them to seek for adventurous events. This adventure has inflicted a change in behavior because the youth have shown an increase in the urge to explore. It has increased immorality in the society because adventurous trips make the teens to engage in violent behavior, engage in unprotected sexual intercourse, as well as alcohol and drug abuse.
The word, however, lays an important role in the society or culture because it emphasizes on tourism endeavors. The community members have managed to safeguard their environments to give adventurers a chance to appreciate and enjoy flora and fauna. Most communities have protected their wetlands, forests, mountains, waterfalls, as well as other adventurous resources to pave the way for tourism activities around the society (Cheng, 2017). This has helped communities to earn revenue from tourism, and it has, therefore, facilitated the growth and development of societies. Furthermore, communities have safeguarded their traditions and cultures to help other to visit them to witness their unique art, music, and literature. The word adventure, however, has been misunderstood by many. The mixture of reaction is based on the different cultural beliefs and traditions (Cheng et al., 2016). There are native communities that think that adventures are not epic and they are sinful. Other communities believe that the word encourages immorality because most adventures occur away from home giving the participants a chance to engage in immoral behavior that is unethical according to societal norms, values, traditions, and beliefs.
In the media, the word adventure has been used to indicate the national and state parks that offer adventure. Furthermore, film directors have managed to create and launch documentaries that elaborate more on an adventure. These documentaries have played a significant role in the development of the American film industries and higher education systems. There exists a personal connection to adventure because my family has understood the word as a driver of joyous moments that inflict memorable moments. As a result, the family often goes on adventures every last Saturday of the month. In the family, the word reflects on the unification of the family through an enjoyable event that sparks memories of momentous occasions. The word gives the family members encouragement and motivation to explore more grounds for fun. The primary idea that comes to mind is the ability to tour different areas to have fun and enjoy with the community. The word, therefore, has had an impact on my family and it has led to memorable events.
References
Cheng, M. (2017). A cross-cultural comparison of East and Western academic literature on adventure tourism. Tourist Studies, 1468797617723472.
Cheng, M., Edwards, D., Darcy, S., & Redfern, K. (2016). A tri-method approach to a review of adventure tourism literature: Bibliometric analysis, content analysis, and a quantitative systematic literature review. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 1096348016640588.
Raaflaub, K. A. (Ed.). (2016). The Adventure of the Human Intellect: Self, Society, and the Divine in Ancient World Cultures. John Wiley & Sons.
The etymology Library https://www.etymonline.com/ –