Recent orders
The Role of the World Bank, Its Historical Evolution, and Its Relation to the Nation-State System
Political Science
Name:
Professor
Institution
Course:
Date:
The Role of the World Bank, Its Historical Evolution, and Its Relation to the Nation-State System
Abstract
The World Bank is known to many as one that provides monitory aid to mostly developing countries. When the World Bank started its operations, it dealt with the mentioned matter. Throughout the historical evolution of the World Bank, it has undergone a transformation in its strategy. It now seeks to engage in matters, which are considered to be political, and those dealing with human rights. Developing countries, through the World Bank’s assistance, are now aware of their rights and want more involvement in government. The World Bank seeks to use social accountability and the rights based approach as its tools in enhancing human rights. The relation, which exists between nation states and the World Bank, has been mentioned. The system of nations influences the relations, which the World Bank has with various countries. The research recommends that the World Bank should do more to include matters on human rights in its mandate. Lastly, it concludes that the World Bank should be recognized as it has a vital role in the society.
Key Words: World Bank. Rights Based Approach, Social Accountability, Nation State System, Human Rights.
Introduction
For many years, the rates of rapprochement have taken place at an extremely fast pace. In turn, it has led to many parties engaging in dialogue with each other. Communities have to be developed, as well have human rights issues have to be discussed. Forums have been held to ensure the spheres are promoted, since they are interdependent. Scholars have made progress in an attempt to bring about development through an integration, which is conceptualized. Furthermore, the use of an approach, which is rights base, has assisted in advocating for matters concerning human rights. According to the United Nations Declaration, people are protected by the Right to Development. In turn, many policy analysts have engaged in research, in order to find out more concerning it. The analysts seek to find out the responsibilities, duties that are contained in the UN Declaration (World Bank, 2004).
A conflict exists between evolution and the approach that is rights based. The latter plays a significant role in matters that concern the community of human rights. Globalization has impacted the world, and in turn, it influences nation states. The World Bank is extremely interested in matters that concern regimes, which constantly engage in acts that are inhumane. Other players fascinated by this critical matter are policy makers, presidents, among other key personnel. An increase in the number of concepts in this area of human rights cannot be ignored. They include concepts such as transnational social networks, corporate social responsibility, as well as the global compact. An international organization, such as the World Bank, has expanded its interest in matters that are considered gray (World Bank, 2004).
There has been a lot of controversy surrounding the World Bank concerning its score card on human rights matters. It is a known fact that the World Bank’s relative share on matters concerning capital transfers is decreasing quite fast. The latter occurs when it is involved in projects in the countries that are developing. It should be known that the World Bank is not only interested in financial matters, but even issues on human rights. As a result of country dialogue, and lending that is structurally adjusted, the World Bank assumes its role. Moreover, it acts as a catalytic guarantor when developing countries need to borrow loans. Its impact on the world that is developing cannot be denied, as the livelihood of many people has improved due to it. Some of the projects concerning human rights, which have been aided by the World Bank includes; Chad Cameroon Pipeline and the Narmada Dam. The projects have been criticized as they have been harmful, and in turn, affected the image of the World Bank.
Many environmental policies, as well as a comprehensive framework had to be formed. The World Bank did not have an appealing environmental record, and it had to find a way to improve its image. The institution has had to find ways of being ambiguous, and at the same time, treat the matter as it ought to be. Many allegations concerning violations on human rights are now being addressed by the institution. The charter, which the World Bank abides by, is extremely oscillated, and there is no policy that it follows concerning human rights. The only key issue, which exists, is that it should not participate in activities, which are political. It is also, only allowed to associate itself with matters that are related to the economy. According the World Bank charter, it seeks to expand its de facto and its human rights territory. It seeks to make sure that in its operations, there is an inclusion of conditionality’s of human rights. In the current market place that is global, the World Bank is under extreme pressure to change its raison detre. World leaders are also pushing for the World Bank to change how it relates with people, especially those under abusive regimes (World Bank, 2004).
This paper seeks to give a critical analysis concerning the role and the historical evolution of the World Bank in matters that concern human rights. Furthermore, it seeks to analyze the relation that exists between nation states and the World Bank, in addressing the human rights problem.
The Historical Evolution of the World Bank in matters concerning Human Rights
A tension, which is considered narrow, has existed for a long time in the World Bank’s history. It has sort to understand itself despite being known to be technocratic as well as an agency interested in economic matters. The World Bank has been involved in projects, in order to make its mandate be broad. During the period of the 1960’s, a skirmish affected the World Bank. At that time, resolutions were passed by the United Nations General Assemblies and were referred to as being ‘requesting’, ‘urging’ as well as ‘inviting’. It demanded that money was not to be given to Portugal and South Africa by the World Bank. The two countries were involved in matters concerning colonial polices and the apartheid respectively. As it is expected, the Bank became defiant and did not follow the instructions given to it by the United Nations. Instead, it approved many loans, and defended itself by claiming it had a character that is apolitical, as an act of defiance. It seems that the World Bank had started becoming defiant to matters concerning the United Nations Resolutions.
From the years 1968 to 1981, McNamara headed the World Bank, and he ventured into new activities. By engaging in infrastructure projects, which are large scale, it sort to change how people viewed it. In an effort to end poverty in the developing world, it made sure to increase economic growth in its ventures. In turn, it focused its attention on policy based lending from the former projects. Towards the 1980’s, the World Bank initiated a campaign whereby, it engaged in the adjustment of structural loans. In due time, the macroeconomic policy, which it had, had evolved in to something with extreme worth. It had found its way to ensure that public institutions and polices were to be re-engineered to a fully fledged extent. It justified its initiatives by claiming that it had to create environments, which were enabling. Moreover, it had to come up with politically viable reforms as part of its political domain.
In the year 1989, a border existed between economic and political issues, and the matter was extremely blurry. World Bank conducted a study in that year, and found a solution to improving development in African Sub Saharan countries. They found out that a method of fostering development, which is long term, would be achieved through good governance. Also, human rights and the law had to be respected, as it promoted good governance. Up to date, the World Bank has not ceased trying to find its ways through governance matters (World Bank, 2004). Unfortunately, the new stance taken by the World Bank could not escape from being challenged. Some of the recipients of the money given by the World Bank believed that their matters were being intruded upon. They believed that their political autonomy was not safe, but they could not do anything to change the situation. Furthermore, donor countries were extremely welcoming the new move by the World Bank. They claimed that the approach contributed towards the rule of law, transparency and accountability.
The situation had attracted a lot of attention, and the leaders at the World Bank had to give guidance and clarity concerning the matter. The Bank’s Chief Counsel was appointed to fund out where politics began, as well as the point whereby economics ends. He had to find an answer to questions of a scholastic nature through any means possible (United Nations, 2003). In turn, he came up with various publications and memos, as part of the findings of his research. He claimed that the Bank had a mandate to engage in politics, but only to a conservative extent. Even more, in some situations, human rights issues had to be addressed by the World Bank. At the beginning of the 1990’s, there was expansion and strengthening of the Bank’s operational policy framework. Since there were many activities going on at the time, the various parameters increased significantly. They took up this routine in a systematic fashion, which could easily control their interactions. The new strategy meant to increase the number of shareholders as well as their participation. The latter sort to safeguard policies, in order to Increase the participation of the various people involved.
The Bank’s operations, which are mainly legal, social and environmental, would be implicated in the future. Some of the policies had direct implications on matters concerning human rights. They included indigenous people and involuntary resettlement policies. In turn, they made their way into vital aspects of operations at the World Bank. In order to attain accountability, the policy reforms were extremely beneficial (World Bank, 2004). Operations within the bank were hampered as implementation became difficult, due to the flaws that existed. An example of how the latter took place is during the Indian Narmada Dam Issue, and a report was produced. Another report known as Wapenhans, presented the World Bank’s internal operations (United Nations, 2003). It showed matters taking place on the ground that disconnected implementation and policy guidance. The reports expressed that a mechanism for accountability had to exist, and the matter was quite pervasive. Luckily, the establishment of an inspection Panel took place in the year 1994. The established institution is regarded as a human rights landscape of an organ, which is quasi-judicial. It means that people could receive recourse, in case the World Bank harmed them. Other banks, which were engaged in development activities, were to follow the same mandate.
The World Bank leadership soon changed and this took place at the same time the Inspection Panel was established. In a bid to increase the Bank’s scope of operation, Wolfensohn the new president, continued with the progress. He even made sure to go into other areas including anti-corruption, Post-conflict reconstruction and cultural development. He went as far as making sure that issues concerning governance were solidified. World Bank’s lending arm with concessionary abilities came up with its own governance conditionality. The agreement took the name IDA12, which meant that in order for any economy to grow, good governance had to exist. It will also help in bringing about the effectiveness in matters dealing with governance. According to the agreement, four dimensions of governance exist. They include; a framework that is legal and stable. According to the agreement, the dimensions of governance exist. They include; a framework that is legal and stable, as well as public institutions, which are competent and accountable. Also, civil society and affected groups participation and practices, as well as policies that are social. Moreover, the agreement claimed that a country’s ability depends on many factors, which are vital. It can bring about reduced poverty, social and economic development (United Nations, 2003).
If the factors were to be addressed, they would be in line with the mandate, which the IDA had. Most of the countries, which are least developed, are often selected to receive loans from the IDA. The divide that existed between economics and politics caused many problems for the World Bank. The employees working at the bank were divided on matters concerning political and civil rights. They did not want to acknowledge the nexus that existed between development and good governance. ‘Development and Human Rights’ is a publication of the World Bank in the year 1998. It provided details concerning the cultural, social and economic rights of various countries. Other human rights issues were mentioned as well as they indirectly affected governance. A criterion for performance based on the replenishment of the IDA was widely endorsed. Wolfensohn had to come up with a way of developing World Bank’s paradigm. He came up with the Comprehensive Development Framework that had a development holistic approach. It attempted to find a balance in policy making by ensuring that the different elements are known. They are elements, which are financial, economic, environmental, governance, human, structural and social. The World Bank faced an opportunity, as well as challenge, due to the CDF’s bold language. It even had to review the interpretation of the CDF and the Articles of Agreement.
The Mandate of the World Bank on matters that concern the nation state and human rights
On the other hand, in any international system, actors which are cultural, social, economic and political have to exist. Most times, the nations states come together in order to form their own political unions. Currently, there are many nation states coming up, and they will face many difficulties. Various realities, which are social, economic and politically based, will have to be known. Relations exist between nation states and the World Bank, as they both help countries, which are developing. The United States is a nation state, and even the leading super power in the world. Most times, it works hand in hand with the World Bank in matters concerning lending money. The United States can choose and advise on, which countries should receive donor support or not. World politics is often controlled by nation’s states, due to the vast power that they hold. When it comes to matters concerning debt issues, financing, management and other economic issues, the World Bank has a role to play. It affects the relationships, which occur between the poor and the rich countries (World Bank, 2004).
The nation’s states have an interest in human rights issues, as they believe that it is their mandate to do so. Most recently, the World Bank has diversified and has introduced initiatives in the sector of social accountability. They can be witnessed in countries such as Uganda, Albania and Peru. It is believed that a right can be easily achieved through having social accountability. Governments should ensure that their citizens are responsible by always making them accountable for their actions. Human rights defense and promotion is extremely vital in the modern world. Many countries have signed cultural, social and economic rights, as well as the International Covenants on Civil & Political Rights. Article IV is one that the World Bank seems to constantly violate, as it has not come up with measures that are adoptive. In the Article of Agreement’s tenth section, any person with affiliations with the World Bank should not be Involved in any political matters. They should not support any political party even if they are members of a nation state. There are some countries, which are notoriously known for engaging in affairs, which are political, and have a record on human rights. Various methods have been introduced by the World Bank in order to discuss human rights. During the Universal Declaration of Human Rights fiftieth birthday, a commitment towards human rights promotion was signed by the World Bank.
The Universal Declaration provides useful information regarding how rights will be fulfilled. In many developing countries, the Bank helps through the provision of nutrition, health care, primary education, environment, housing and sanitation. There is proof to show that more than a million people have benefited from the services offered by the World Bank. People have in turn acquired and known their social and economic rights (World Bank, 2004). The Universal Declaration also gives information regarding how the World Bank is involved in matters that strengthen human rights. The latter is possible, as it has brout about accountability, improved transparency, as well as fight corruption. Also, financial sectors have been modernized as well as judicial systems have been strengthened. This means that people now have an opportunity of being involved in matters that concern human rights, as a right environment has been created by the World Bank.
It should not be forgotten that Globalization has affected the manner, which the World Bank conducts itself. Economic liberalization and technological innovations have led world markets to open. The United States has in turn found ways to ensure that people, even those living in developing countries, have an opportunity of consuming products. This is an example of how America, which is a nation state, contributes to the economic development of countries, which are developing (Paul, 2002). Countries in the developing world are known to receive at least a quarter of FDI flows, in the world. As the years progress, the figure seems to fluctuate, the World Bank wants to solve the situation. The World Bank is urging developing countries to integrate to foster economic development. The United States integrated and today enjoys an economy, which is booming. Individuals should have access to funds, if they are to develop in any way, as has been witnessed. The latter are issues addressed by the World Bank as well as the International Monitory Fund.
The Rights Based Approach
The discourse and practice of human rights by the World Bank is evidence that a lot of positive things will take place eventually. In fact, Nation states are being encouraged, especially by the United Nations, to engage in practices that promote human rights. This seems to justify the reason why the United States feels the urge to make sure that regimes are not inhumane towards their citizens. For example, the United States sent its troops to Iraq as the condition, which existed in that country, were in humane. People were denied the opportunity to exercise their rights, and even the World Bank had to get involved in this pressing matter. The World Bank ceased to offer any kind of assistance to Iraq until the regime that existed would stop all it heinous activities. By engaging in human rights issues, the World Bank is indeed working within its strategy. It has changed the perception, which people had about it, as it now has a stake in matters that are political. It justifies itself by claiming that it is being ethical and moral by participating in human rights matters. Furthermore, it only does so, in order to bring about economic development in the various countries (Harbeson, & Rothchild, 2000).
Through using the rights based approach; the World Bank only seeks to use an intervention method, which will have a positive outcome. When the basic necessities of individuals are fulfilled, it becomes easy to realize human rights. The latter has the ability of solving matters concerning basic necessities, and this is according to the World Bank. There is a lot of argument concerning the mentioned statement. The argument assumes that human rights and economic development can be promoted to be one issue. The perspective offered by the World Bank is viewed as being one that adds no value. It is not possible to merge economic development and human rights. There is a need to distinguish conditionality and international pressure from their applications. In using the Rights Based Approach, matters such as if citizens have their rights respected, are not of importance. Even, if a development project will be successful or not does not matter. The most vital aspect is whether the various development tasks that are being used and in, which way.
The rights based approach key objective is to ensure that the relationships, which exist, are inverted. Examples of such relationships are those that exist between the poor, service providers and policy makers. Other approaches view the process of development as a network that exists among international agencies, foundations and the governments. This approach often ignores certain groups as their resources are channeled to people they favor. The key priority of the approach based on human rights is that the poor should be entitled to help. Policy makers and service providers are now assuming the role of duty bearers, as this is how they have been conceptualized. They know that they have to ensure that the poor have their human rights respected (Harbeson, & Rothchild, 2000). It is not always possible to find defense, which are justified in matters concerning rights holders. In some countries, there are no legal structures that respect the right holders. Luckily, in other countries, citizens are guaranteed right to health care, education and employment, due to the existing constitutional provisions. Some citizens have gone as far as to file suits in courts against their countries, as they do not have their cultural, social and economic rights fulfilled. It means that people now know that every human being should be accorded all the basic human rights others are entitled.
Social Accountability
It has been witnessed that social accountability and RBA are partners that exist naturally. According to RBA, government accountability and citizen participation are the key concerns in social accountability matters. Other aspects of social accountability include; inclusion, non discrimination and equality. They all are responsible for making sure that ordinary citizens are involved in control and in supervision of government. Participation is scaled up by social accountability. Citizens should not be viewed as participants with simple skills, but rather people with extreme ability. According to social accountability, people are viewed as being elements who, can have a say in evaluation and implementation of policies. Civic participation is broken when they hold their governments to practice as well as in discourse. One can take up only a few suggestions from the poor when they are involved in public policy planning. Also, one cannot let them be extremely involved in evaluating and watching government actions. It is not recommended that citizens are over empowered as they might abuse their rights.
Human rights defense is supported by the World Bank through social accountability,. When citizens are accepted into government, they can start to demand rights that are impossible. They may even want new laws without even being aware of the process of making them. Also, there is a risk that they may blame the state on everything that affects their lives. In turn, the possibility of there being a loop hole is extremely high. For example, in many African countries the citizens often blame their government when they are affected by things even beyond the control of the government. Farmers will blame poor production of crops on the government even if the problem is due to lack of rainfall. This means it has to change the mindset of the citizens, and make them more open minded (Ackerman, 2005).
Recommendations
After a thorough research of the World Bank’s role, and how it deals with human rights issues, the following conclusions were made. The World Bank should work hard towards changing its mandate, so that it can be more accommodative to political matters. The World Bank should strive towards ensuring that a government works together with their citizens. This will in turn promote effective relationships between the two parties (Paul, 2002). When it comes to lending of money, the World Bank should only give to countries, which are involved in advocating for human rights. It should also develop polices, which are bound to succeed, but only after consultations with key players on such matters. Nations states such as the united states, should become more involved in assisting the World Bank in providing assistance to those in need.
The nations states should on a regular basis gives reports on the progress that they have made. Non Governmental Organizations should be more involved in human rights matters, and should formulate specific goals. Other institutions dealing in matters concerning human rights should be given support by the World Bank. Furthermore, the civil society should put more into the process of reporting. It turn, it will make the process of decision making in policy issues become easier. Development should encompass factors such as inclusiveness, equality and non-discrimination. Lastly, a linkage, which is active, should exist between legal institutions and development for human rights purposes. Even after all the recommendations have been made, a follow up has to take place. The matter is of extreme urgency, and there are people who are in dire need of help from the World Bank.
Conclusion
In conclusion, it is indeed evident that the World Bank has had a significant history to the modern world. Since its formation, it has done a lot to ensure that people develop economically. Also, the system of nation states has helped the World Bank to carry out its functions. Moreover, human rights issues cannot be ignored and should be dealt with. Many scholars have been researching about the political affairs, human rights, and economic considerations practiced by the World Bank. Majority of them seem to believe that the World Bank should not participate in human rights promotion and protection. International Law is a barrier which is preventing the World Bank, from fully realizing what it sorts to achieve. Instead, an approach, which is rights based, has been adopted in order to bring about development. Social scientists and economists have come up with evidence, which suggests that human rights and economic welfare are related.
The bank’s mandate, which is concerned with economic development, as well as financing, is now being threatened. It should be known that the World Bank still concerns itself with matters on monitoring, investigating, assessing and inspecting. Human rights matters have been integrated into its system, as it has seen the need to do so. The policy on human rights by the World Bank should focus on solving conflicts that occur all over the world. Currently, the United States and the World Bank are working together on various projects. Indeed, the World Bank has a role, which is of importance to many people.
References
Ackerman, John. (2005). Social Accountability for the Public Sector: A Conceptual Discussion,
Washington: The World Bank, Social Development Paper No. 82.
Harbeson, John. & Rothchild, Donald. (2000) Africa in World Politics: The African State System In Flux. New York: West View Press.
Paul, Samuel. (2002). Holding the State to Account: Citizen Monitoring in Action, Bangalore: Books for Change.
United Nations . (2003). “The Human Rights Based Approach to Development Cooperation:
Towards a Common Understanding Among the UN Agencies,” New York: UN.
World Bank. (2004e) “Idea Note: Justice for the Poor-Program for the Reform of Legal Institutions in the Local Environment,” Washington: The World Bank.
THE ROLE OF PLAY IN EARLY CLASSROOM YEARS IN SAUDI ARABIA
(Name)
(Instructors’ name)
(Course)
(Date)
THE ROLE OF PLAY IN EARLY CLASSROOM YEARS IN SAUDI ARABIA
Table of Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676055” I.Abstract PAGEREF _Toc311676055 h 2
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676056” II.Introduction PAGEREF _Toc311676056 h 3
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676057” III.Definition of Play PAGEREF _Toc311676057 h 5
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676058” IV.Theories of Play PAGEREF _Toc311676058 h 6
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676059” A.Classical Theories of Play PAGEREF _Toc311676059 h 7
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676060” Surplus Energy Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676060 h 8
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676061” Recreation/ Relaxation Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676061 h 8
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676062” Recapitulation Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676062 h 9
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676063” Pre-exercise/Instinct Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676063 h 9
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676064” Compensation Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676064 h 10
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676065” B.Contemporary Theories of Play PAGEREF _Toc311676065 h 10
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676066” Psycho-analytic Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676066 h 11
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676067” Arousal modulation Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676067 h 11
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676068” Meta-communicative Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676068 h 12
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676069” Cognitive Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676069 h 12
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676070” Social-Cultural Theory PAGEREF _Toc311676070 h 13
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676071” V.Types of Play PAGEREF _Toc311676071 h 13
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676072” Active Play PAGEREF _Toc311676072 h 14
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676073” Quiet Play PAGEREF _Toc311676073 h 14
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676074” Cooperative Play PAGEREF _Toc311676074 h 14
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676075” Creative Play PAGEREF _Toc311676075 h 15
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676076” Imaginative Play PAGEREF _Toc311676076 h 15
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676077” Manipulative Play PAGEREF _Toc311676077 h 15
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676078” VI.Children’s Right to Play PAGEREF _Toc311676078 h 15
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676079” VII.Incorporation of Play in Saudi Arabian Classrooms PAGEREF _Toc311676079 h 16
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676080” VIII.Play in Future Curriculum PAGEREF _Toc311676080 h 17
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676081” IX.Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc311676081 h 18
HYPERLINK l “_Toc311676082” X.Works Cited PAGEREF _Toc311676082 h 20
AbstractThe terms play and sport have long been confused in the development of the early childhood curriculum of education. Sequentially, most educators exclude social play in their curriculums, which in turn limits the access of social play to young children in their early years. Accordingly, various concerns that are still under consideration with regards to the importance of play in the classroom and the motivation of play in the classroom. In Saudi Arabia for example, social play has often been excluded from the early childhood curriculum, which has in turn posed a problem for Saudi Arabian children. The role of play in early year’s classroom in Saudi Arabia will be the center of this paper and the paper analyzes the incorporation of play in Saudi Arabian classrooms. Relevantly, the paper also explains the difference between play and sport so as to explain to the readers the importance of play for children.
Key words: Early Childhood Education, Play, Theories of Play, Types of Play, IntroductionEarly childhood education and the later forms of education differ from each other in relation to the focus on educative practices and procedures for their students. Early childhood education emphasizes the need for children to learn through play based on the concepts and beliefs of the power of play. The later stages of education, on the other hand, emphasize learning through the use of informative materials such as books. Accordingly, early childhood education links play to learning and researchers in this field explain that play is an important tool for learning in children. Whereas learning may include reading and carrying out activities such as community services and religious practices, play refers to the different social activities that children engage during the learning process. Learning and play often overlap with each other, thus making play an interesting subject for research.
Play has always been considered as an activity carried out by children, rather than, adults. However, it is advisable to appreciate the play as an activity which is enjoyed by all, children and adults alike (Pascal, 62). While play is extremely beneficial to children as it is a sure way by which children learn to utilize their surplus energy, it is also a natural part of child growth and development. Play plays a role in the cognitive and social development of children, hence making it an important factor in early childhood education. Research has also identified that play is particularly instrumental for supporting the development of the students’ communication skills. Sequentially, most educators and education policy makers emphasize the need for the incorporation of play in the early childhood education curriculums. Such curriculums will incorporate play as a subject of its own together with other subjects such as mathematics, the arts, and sciences among other subjects. With such a curriculum, teachers and educators are required to allocate a specific time where children are encouraged to engage in various play activities.
The incorporation of play in early childhood curriculums Saudi Arabian classrooms has been a central issue of concern in most academic circles in the region. The country is becoming much more concerned with issues affecting their young children especially during the period of early childhood education. Studies conducted on the issue reveal that classrooms in Saudi Arabia are continually failing to incorporate play as a learning activity, and for that reason, the physical, social, and cognitive development of children in these classes is impaired. Accordingly, policy makers in the field of early education encourage educators and instructors to incorporate play in their curriculum as it assists in the alignment of the educational goals for each developmental stage in children.
This paper presents a critical examination of the role of play in early year’s classroom in Saudi Arabia. In essence, the paper provides an etymological definition of play, illustrating the different theories and types of play. The right to play will also be examined in the paper so as to explain the importance of play in a child’s life. The paper will conclude by scrutinizing the incorporation of play in Saudi classrooms, which will be geared towards encouraging play in future Saudi Arabian curriculums.
Definition of PlayAccording to Cattanach, (95), play refers to any engrossing activity, which involves the fervent participation of young children. On the other hand, Power, et al. (99), defines play as the simpler subsection of the learning process in which the children explore their inhibited talents and learn to connect it with the latent abilities. Researchers also define play as an activity in which the person chooses freely without compulsion or constraint, and is ready to experience the consequences that come with play. For one to be termed as engaging in play, one must enjoy the activity in which they engage in. The player must value it in a positive way and finally, the player must have self or intrinsic motivation. Sutton-Smith (199), argue that, during the formulation and development of play activities, teachers and educator ensure that their play activities incorporate the above characteristics. Accordingly, this is the only way that children will feel motivated.
Katz, (13), explains that, etymologically that play is defined as the activities that people engage in, to reduce the level of stress, by shifting their attention from class work. Broadhead (191), argues that play is a form of learning activity people carry out to de-stress themselves and get a sense of self worth. Classically, Aristotle defines play as an activity that is carried out for its own sake, but regarded learning. In the modern world, play must be available for all and must run concurrently with play. Learning in the modern world is used as a curriculum. However, the best way is to refer to play as a discretionary time or as defined by Attar, (197), the free time an individual remains with after attending to learning and all the requirements of life. The period of play is considered as the time that one devotes to learning through socialization and the engagement of a variety of physical activities. It is important to note that a child’s play time is intended to be used as the child pleases. Play is, therefore, the activity in which one engage in during his free time to amuse himself, rest, add his knowledge, or take part in voluntary activities for the society or community. For children and young adults, playtime is only important of they engage in play activities after fully discharging his academic obligations. This is because it assists in the learning process through the addition of knowledge that goes beyond the classroom lessons.
Theories of PlayThe concept of play in early childhood education has long been the center of focus for educators and researchers in the field throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries (McLachlan 78). Most researchers have battled with the issue of play in a bid to understand why people, especially children, engage in play activities, and the importance of play to the child. Researchers came out to give their opinions and perceptions regarding play and its importance in early childhood development. Most of the work done by early theorist of play included definition and explanations of the concepts of play with special emphasis being placed on the use of play as a tool for learning and development in children. Some of the theorists intent on explaining the concept of play in early childhood education include Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Herbert Spenser, Ivan Pavlov, Moritz Lazarus, J.B Watson, Montessori, Steiner, Erik Erickson, and Lev Vygostky among others. The above-mentioned theorists focused their studies and works to the development of theories of play for better comprehension of the concept of play in early childhood education. Their extensive and exhaustive research studies explain the concepts of play from different perspectives all of which diverge but correlate with each other (Verenikina, 1). These theorists aimed at explaining the importance of play in a child’s education and learning process, which in turn allowed professionals in the field to understand the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and educative function of play.
Researchers and academicians working in the fields of psychology and early childhood development have, therefore, identified various theories of play. Accordingly, these theories of play can be divided into two broad categories including classical theories of play and contemporary theories of play. Classical theories of play are the theories that were developed between the 19th and early 20th century, whereas the contemporary theories of play include the play theories that were developed after the twentieth century. These theories are further divided into subcategories, which provide a detailed explanation of the concept of play as examined by the particular theorist who developed the theory.
Classical Theories of PlayAs previously mentioned, the classical theories of play can be predated to the period between the late 19 century and the early 20th century. Most of the theories, which fall under the classical theories of play, have been identified as placing more emphasis on the reasons as to why children engage in play activities. The emphasis placed by these theories is on the physical and intuitive aspects of play for children. Put together, the classical theories contribute to the understanding of play through the placement of the concept of play in the limelight for further investigation (Verenikina, 2). They are the earliest theories of play, which acknowledged the importance of play in early childhood education. These theories, further, laid the foundation for the advancement of the theories of play in the field of education. Five main classical theories of play have been identified including the Surplus energy theory, the recreation or relaxation theory, the recapitulation theory, the pre-exercise or instinct theory, and the compensation theory of play.
Surplus Energy Theory
Proposed by Spencer (1875), the surplus energy theory of play argues that play arises as a result of the surplus energy that a child has after subjection to long hours of minimal physical activities. He postulated in his surplus energy theory, that people engaged themselves in plays to burn any excess energy that they may have. In most cases, individuals, especially young children are observed as to having high energy levels, which the proposers of this theory state need to be let out (Verenikina, 2). According to this theory, children are motivated to play so as to release the energy they have stored up inside. As theorists explain, an observation of children during recess period is a clear illustration of the application of this theory. Elmer Mitchell, a theorist in support of the surplus energy theory, explains that human beings are dynamic creatures and are always on the lookout for any activity they can do to let out their pent up energy and express themselves (Almnie, 23).
Recreation/ Relaxation Theory
The recreation or relaxation theory of place is the second theory of play that has been classified under the classical theories of play. This theory was developed by Moritz Lazarus in 1883, and later developed by Patrick 1916, as well as, Dockett and Fleer in 1999 (Verenikina, 2). With this theory, play is considered as a method of dispelling the reticence experienced as a result of fatigue. This theory is founded on the notion that the day-to-day activities in which individuals engage in may cause exhaustion to these individuals. For that reason, engaging in play facilitates the replenishment of energy for children. Put simply, this theory argues that play is used as a tool of relaxation as it helps individuals to unwind after engagement normal activities such as reading and writing. Other researchers such as Perkins (19) contend with Moritz Lazarus, who stated that people engaged in play to preserve energy, thus put the learning theory forth. He argued that a change in activities such as physical exercise preserves energy.
Recapitulation Theory
Just as the name suggests, the recapitulation theory of play suggests that play is used as a tool for the repetition of various evolutionary changes that children undergo. Developed by Hall in 1906, the theory argues that play is an activity whereby individuals seek to relive their evolutionary past (Verenikina, 2). With this theory, play is not considered as an activity that individuals engage in for the acquisition of future instinctual skills. However, play is used to get rid of the individual’s instinctive nature, which is in most cases carried on as a result of heredity, for proper growth and development. For that reason, the play activities that children engage in are more likely to correspond with the biological and cultural changes that humanity will undergo (Verenikina, 2).
Pre-exercise/Instinct Theory
Closely linked with the recapitulation theory, the pre-exercise or instinct theory considers play as an instinctive activity rather than an atypical activity for children. This theory was developed by Karl Groos in 1898 and 1901 and is founded on the primary concept that play is indispensable to continued existence for humanity. In his indistinct practice theory Groos states simply that, when people are exhausted they engage in physical practices that sharpen their skills and enable them to survive in the future (Verenikina, 2). This theory considers play as a unique tool for early childhood education development. Additionally, theory argues that play is distinct to childhood years, and for that reason, it cannot be easily identifiable in adulthood. The importance of this theory to early childhood education id identified in the fact that it focuses on the different play types, as opposed to, play as a physical activity. For example, the enactment of adult roles and responsibility during imaginative play by children prepares them for the future adult life. With this theory, educators and instructors are introduced to the intellectual or cognitive benefits of play for children.
Compensation TheoryThe last, but not least, classical theory of play is the compensation theory. The compensation theory of play suggests that individuals engage in play for the sole purpose of the satisfaction of psychic needs. In essence, this theory of play argues that people engage in play for self-satisfaction (Verenikina, 2). This theory is founded on the concept that the repetitive nature of work kills a person’s motivation, and for that reason, people will engage in play so as to satisfy themselves where their respective work does not.
Contemporary Theories of PlayResearch studies explain that unlike the classical theories of play, contemporary theories are conceptually distinct and broader with relation to explaining the concept of play and its importance in early childhood education. Contemporary theories of play are more focused on finding out how play influences a child’s social and psychological development (Verenikina, 2). For that reason, these theories have taken the center stage in most modern research studies, as well as, early childhood education programs. Specifically, these theories have seen the incorporation of play in early education curriculums for the purpose of nurturing the development of children across the field of education. Just as the classical theories of play, the contemporary theories of play have been divided into sub-theories, all of which seek to examine the concept of play form a modern or contemporary perspective.
Psycho-analytic Theory
The psycho-analytic theory of play is the most recognized contemporary theory of play that was proposed by Sigmund and Anna Freud in 1959 and 1968 respectively (Verenikina, 2). This theory of play supports the notion that play is a medium where individuals can relieve anxiety and stress. Play is, therefore, considered as a way of allowing children to get rid of any negative emotional problems that they may face during their day to day activities. This, in turn, allows children to gain control over their emotions, as they are allowed to safely express their negative emotions. this theory of play allows children to link their play activities with some of the real events that they experience. Children are allowed to dramatize their past, present and future real life events. Conclusively, this theory also considers play as a form of creative exploration whereby the individuals play to arouse their stimuli and test their environment (Almnie, 22; Delpit, 55).
Arousal modulation TheoryFirst proposed by Berlyne 1960, and later developed by Ellis in 1973 the Arousal modulation theory of play suggests that play is essential for the maintenance of an optimal state of arousal for the human body and mind (Verenikina, 3). This theory of play is based on a behaviorist stimulus and response assumption, which emphasizes the need for the stimulation of the senses for children and individuals engaging in play. This theory is founded on the believe that play is not limited to being a physical activity, and is also a mental activity with which children need to engage in fully. With this theory, play is used either for raising or lowering a person’s stimulation. This is however dependent on whether or not the individual is under-stimulated or over-stimulated.
Meta-communicative TheoryThe meta-communicative theory of play proposed by Bateson in 1976 describes play as a platform for communication in children (Verenikina, 3). This theory argues that children engage in play for the purpose of communicating with their peers as well as their supervisors. With this theory, play is used to describe the activities that children engage in so as to promote communication and self-expression. This theory is based on the inherent human characteristics where a person seeks to express himself or herself through communication, and seeks to find out the best possible mode for this communication.
Cognitive Theory
The cognitive theory of play is one of the most well-known modern theories of play. Proposed by Jean Piaget in 1962, this theory of play argues that play had various cognitive functions and children engaged in play so as to meet their cognitive needs. In the development of the theory, Piaget argued for the role of play in three cognitive stages including the sensorimotor stage, the pre-operational stage, and the concrete operational stage (Verenikina, 3). In the sensorimotor stage, children learn sensations and movement through play. The pre-operational stage, on the other hand, sees the acquisition of motor skills in children through play, whereas the concrete operational stage argues for the use of play for the development of intellectual skills such as problem solving..
Social-Cultural Theory
In the years 1977 and 1978, Lev Vygotsky developed the social-cultural theory of play, which emphasized the play as a tool for socialization and the improvement of interpersonal skills (Verenikina, 3). This theory is based on the principles of cooperative play, which argue that play involves two or more children. For that reason, play is seen as a tool for social development, which is in turn, linked to the cognitive development of children.
Types of PlayIn order to understand the importance of play in early childhood development, one must consider the various types of play that children engage in during their free time. Accordingly, two broad classifications of play have been identified including free play and structured play. Brooker, (2002), defines free play as the kind of play that children chose what to do, and how to play. This kind of play involves the intervention of an adult in minimal scale as compared to structured play. Free play allows children to engage in their preferred play activities with minimal intervention for adults with whom they are under supervision. With this kind of play, children organize themselves and make their own rules regarding the play activities in which they engage. Structured play, on the other hand, refers to the kind of play whereby adults engage in the play activity together with the children. This form of play is important because the input of the teachers is instrumental in ensuring that the children are engaged in constructive form of play. The adults initiate that play, controls the materials and the resources that the children have to play with and intervene in the course of the play. Teachers or practitioners are expected to have a better idea about the play and the general or specific objectives of initiating that play in the classroom. This is what influences the kind of intervention that the practitioner implements (Denzin, 460). There are various believes and mixed opinions as the social constructivist believe that free play is easy to isolate, and in not involving children in sharing and contracting meanings. The original work of the social constructivists such as Vygotsky and Bruner, easily envisage that adults will get themselves into the children’s play. However, they also argue that reflection and sharing of information is vital in enriching the child’s experiences and plays a hugely prominent role in the learning process (Carr, 211).Fundamentally, free play and structured play can be further categorized into six main types of play including active play, quiet play, cooperative play, creative play, dramatic play, and manipulative play.
Active PlayActive play refers to the type of play whereby the child or student is involved in plenty of physical activity (Denzin, 462). Examples of active play include swinging, and other outdoor activities.
Quiet PlayQuiet play is the complete opposite of active play, as it is the kind of play where children are encouraged to engage in play activities with minimal noise (Denzin, 465). Here, children are encourages to keep quiet and open up their minds so as to critically think and reason during play.
Cooperative Play
Cooperative play refers to the type of play whereby more than two children are involved in one play activity (Denzin, 466). With this type of play, children can learn from socializing with others, as well as, observing what their peers are doing during play.
Creative Play
This is a form of play whereby a child is encouraged to use their imagination in the creation of things during play time. A good example of this is the engagement of a child in art activities.
Imaginative PlayAlso referred to as dramatic play, imaginative play refers to the type of play where children are allowed to make up characters and play settings during playtime (Denzin, 467). During the engagement of such a type of play, children make-up the game, as well as, the events that take place during the play activity.
Manipulative PlayThis type of play emphasizes the need for coordination and the development of motor skills in children (Denzin, 468). In such a type of play, children are presented with the opportunity to develop their focus and coordination.
Children’s Right to PlayCowie, & Carr, (24), argue that just as children have a right to education, they also have a right to engage in play activities without discrimination. Children should not be excluded from playing on the grounds of race, colors, age, or religious beliefs. Discrimination of children from play and play activities is regarded as detrimental to child growth and development, and the discriminated child experiences deterred social and cognitive growth. Healthy play however, implies that the rights of the child or player are upheld, hence promoting positive growth and development in children. All children should be presented with opportunities to participate in their preferred play activity. By so saying, teachers need to create an environment in which children have an equal chance of participating in play without bias or discrimination. Any form of discrimination may decimate the child’s spirit, and may even lead to frustration and depression (Salomon, 22; Broadhead 196). As researchers explain, whenever the right of children in a play is infringed, a child loses their self esteem, which may be carried on to the classroom and the child may not be active in the classroom setting. All children should be treated with the kind of respect they deserve at all times; by giving children an opportunity to play, they become active in class. Play is considered as one of the most valuable social activities to children. For that reason, no individual should be discriminated against in the participation of play (Claxton, & Carr, 22).
Incorporation of Play in Saudi Arabian ClassroomsSaudi Arabia, just like any other country, is the world has rules and regulations that govern the country’s education system. Saudi Arabia has an education system that caters for the needs of both sexes (Al-Ameel 8). Both male and female children have a right to development. Educationists in Saudi Arabia know the importance of play to children and, advocates for enough time for playing. The country has a well-structured education system, in which those who deny their right to education are liable to punishment. The country believes that education is paramount to everybody (Claxton, 42; Delpit, 56). To get a clear picture on how much the government of Saudi Arabia values play in the early year’s classroom, researchers in the field have conducted an analysis of the number of hours children engage in play both inside their schools and outside. These studies have gone to show that even though Saudi Arabian students engage in play activities in school, it is not enough to contribute in the social and cognitive development of children. Most of the children in Saudi Arabia are not actively involved in play both within the school setting and within the home setting. For that reason, there is a need for a complete integration of play in the early year’s school curriculum in Saudi Arabia.
Currently researchers have encouraged the Saudi Arabian government to regulate the number of hours that children play. Studies carried out to investigate the incorporation of play in Saudi Arabian classrooms have unearthed a lot of disparity about the general knowledge on the importance of play. play in developing children in the early years. The teachers most from both public and private schools agree that the early year’s programs in Saudi Arabian schools are the foundation stage in the childhood education. This is the same argument that Al-Shahee, (195) provides. These programs are vital as they focus on pre-reception, reception for children in the age group of two years to 5 years. Evidently, most educators are familiar with the importance of play for children and they allocate large track of land for play. These Saudi Arabian schools are also brightly decorated in the interior of their classroom buildings to encourage the involvement of children in play activities. Additionally, most of the classrooms in Saudi Arabia are themed play room which helps in reflecting what the children have learnt. However, even with the allocation of playing facilities for children. Saudi Arabian teachers and educators have failed in the proper inclusion of play in their early year’s curriculum (Al-Ameel 28). For that reason, these facilities lay to waste, as teachers and educators fail to implement the policies regarding playtime for children.
Play in Future CurriculumAs previously mentioned, the ministry of education in Saudi Arabia plays an active role in the formulation of policies with regards to early childhood education. Because they have long provided direction for the implementation of learning, they should also encourage the full integration of play into the early childhood curriculum. As a recommendation for complete inclusion of play in Saudi Arabian classrooms, the role of the teacher needs to be emphasized for the assurance of the incorporation of play in future curriculums. All teachers and educators need to familiarize themselves with the theories and types of play, as well as, the policies regarding the children’s rights to play. More specific recommendations for the inclusion of play in the future curriculums may include a proper examination of the games and toys made available to children for play. Teachers and educators need to ensure that the toys they provide for play are related to the unit or subject being taught. For example, in the weekly classroom curriculum, educators may incorporate different toys for different units/subjects such as the water unit, family unit and food unit. In such a case the toys presented to students should directly correspond to the subject taught. Proper planning is also prerequisite for play in future classrooms as it assures that the games chosen for playtime are suitable to meet the needs and requirements of the children. Teachers and educators also need to sort out the role of their students during play activities, and the rules of the game to be played, so as to, determine whether or not the child understands the
The Role of Global Airline Alliances in International Aviation
(Name)
(Instructors’ name)
(Course)
(Date)
The Role of Global Airline Alliances in International Aviation
The air transport industry is one of the most restrictive and regulated industries in international markets. Domestic liberalization and deregulation have been developing at an uneven speed across nations, and liberalization of global markets has yet to come up with effective solutions to numerous issues. On the other hand, air carriers need to establish an extensive international network to attain economies of density and scope and to meet the demands of the customers. To achieve this, they have to acquire foreign partners. However, restrictions in ownership do not allow for out- country takeovers and mergers. As it follows, alliances have become and will continue to remain in the future, as they are the only key means to strengthen and expand airline international service frameworks (Bruckner and Spiller 332- 42).
Alliances have provided airline companies with a means for carriers to alleviate the challenged of bilateral policies, restrictions in ownership and control and licensing regulations. In effect, both the governments and the airlines consider global alliances to be a significant solution to free trade in global aviation (Bruckner and Spiller 332- 42). This paper will discuss the numerous roles of global airline alliances and the functions these alliances play in international aviation.
Global airline alliances have an essential role when it comes to regulating such elements as passenger revenue available seat miles and available seat miles for the customers. Airline alliances influence these elements mainly through cost and other advantages offered to customers by global airline alliances. There are few of the examples that influence both PRASM and CASM. Some of these include greater access to airline networks, seamless travel, extended access to lounge, transferable priority status and improved frequent- flier program. Wider route networks should attract the attention of passengers because of the preference of passengers for extensive airline networks. Consumer retention and consumer loyalty can be improved by offering services and product services collected through relationship networks, which collectively increase the offer’s value. Therefore, an airline should be able to offer extended value to its customers by extending it relationships network with other airlines. At the minimal, an alliance airline usually offers more itinerary options to its customers than non- alliance airlines of equal size (Bruckner and Spiller 332- 42).
An extremely well- known benefit of alliances is the idea of seamless travel. The current notion in the airline industry is that passengers require seamless travel when transferring to another airline from another. This is usually attained with code- sharing, in which case an airline joins its designator code to a service managed by another airline. Code- sharing is seen as customer- oriented. For instance, star Alliance, which allows member airlines to share revenues and profits through a system based on formula, offers broad code- share flight choices for its customers, promising convenient check- in processes and quick transfers. Oneworld is also another alliance that uses this method promising its passengers seamless travel through smoother transfer (Doganis 120- 67).
Furthermore, as transfers are associated with risks of losing baggage and missing connections, having flights that are coordinate in global alliances reduces the perceived risks and increases the levels of service. Additionally, if a customer decides to change plans of flight, he or she has an option to transfer to a range of routes, schedules and airlines of the alliance network. Therefore, there is flexibility for last minute alterations to plans of flight. This could be a significant advantage to consumers, especially when they are flying on long- haul flights that are indirect.
Airlines have usually given preferential treatment through priority check- in, reservation waitlist, baggage handling and airport standby in an effort to retain customers. For customers, priority status attained with one alliance member is usually extended to the other partner alliances, offering more access to priority advantages from a number of airlines (Doganis 120- 67).
Global alliances also stress on reciprocal access to lounges belonging to partner alliances as another advantage for the executive passenger with the priority status. Before the formation of global alliances, the priority passenger could only utilize the facilities in the lounge of the airline with which he was travelling. Currently, priority members have the ability to access to a larger number of lounges. For instance, Oneworld usually offers not less than 250 lounges and its competitor the Star Alliance gives access to its customers, access to not less than 500 lounges in their airline networks (Doganis 120- 67).
A recent survey reported that more than 94 percent of respondent belonged to not less than one enhanced frequent- flier program and then not less than 59 percent belonged to at least three programs. Traditionally, the benefits of the enhanced frequent- flier programs accrued within one program could not be transferred. With the formation of international alliances, it is now possible to accrue frequent flyer point and other advantages with any other airline so long as it is within the same alliance, something that eliminates the need for memberships to frequent and multiple flyer programs- unless the frequent passenger wishes to join other alliances. This is to mean that frequent- flier program members can attain priority status quicker by accruing or accumulating points under one flier program (Bruckner and Spiller 332- 42).
Additionally, with the expanded network usually offered by an international alliance, redemption of points for awards, are usually made with any member of an alliance for a wider destination variety. Furthermore, as frequent- flier programs become more indistinct and ubiquitous; the chance to redeem and earn points and benefits through international alliances is taken as an extra attempt to differentiate the many frequent- flier programs. This is also to mean that the passenger revenue available seat miles can be earned through these programs, as well as, cost per available seat miles. Frequent fliers get advantages on these elements too from points redeemed from loyalty programs offered by the alliances (Doganis 120- 67).
Airline agencies also influence the abilities of the executives to manage their own companies. Alliances do this through providing them with opportunities to restructure the structure of the industry and to raise barriers and restrictions to new entrants and by offering them market access to overcome limitations over access to routes and ownership of airlines imposed by national governments. There are a number of powerful company- based drivers of international alliance formation, notable, cost reduction, market access, opportunities and coordination to reshape the structure of the industry. In most case, these drivers are usually not designed to service the consumers although they can result to some benefits (Doganis 120- 67).
This poses a number of implications for the executives. How effective was the 70 million dollars spent By Oneworld alliance on its first marketing campaigns? Where should attention be directed in the future? Are their implications of policies, as well? For executives and operators there are several messages. The fact that such implications and messages are directed to the messages and not the alliance is a clear indication that global alliances do let operators manage their own carriers or firms, with added advantages for the managers from the alliances. Alliances usually have significantly minor roles in the functions and choices of a particular airline carrier (Bruckner and Spiller 332- 42).
There are two exceedingly common and renowned international alliances namely Star Alliance and Oneworld Alliance. Oneworld was founded in 1999 by five airlines, which include American airlines, Canadian Airlines, Qantas and British Airways. Oneworld alliance increased its members in 2007 when three more airlines joined permanently including Japan Airline, Royal Jordanian and Malev. Others like five of the Japan Airline subsidiaries, Dragonair, a subsidiary of Cathay Pacific and two of LAN’s subsidiaries joined as affiliate members (“An introduction to Oneworld” 1). On the other hand, Star Alliance is the world’s largest and first airline alliance located in Germany. The alliance was initially started by five airlines including Lufthansa, Air Canada, Thai Airways International, Scandinavian Airlines and United Airlines. The airline experienced its largest expansion between 2000 and 2003 with more than nine new airlines joining the alliance. The alliance has around 26 members and operates more than 21, 000 departures a day (Tagliabue 1).
Mergers and bankruptcies regarding the member airlines of an alliance can lead to reduced wages, job losses and airline labor alliances with less ability and efficiency than they were previously. In the past, mergers and internal growth were the key ways for airlines to take advantage of the market’s scales of economies and take a larger share of the market. However, with the increasing government concerns regarding consolidation of the industry, more mergers have become less likely and rare. Instead, most airlines are responding by expanding or increasing their networks and to attain at least some scales of economy in the current markets by forming global alliances and partnerships designed to offer customers and frequent fliers a set of standardized set of services and products and to indicate a unified image in marketing to consumers (Bisignani 2- 4).
The current economic climate has made it increasingly likely for airline firms to incur large losses and even to go bankrupt. Bankruptcy has a huge potential to reduce the profits of an alliance. Bankruptcy means loss of jobs, income and profits. If an agency were to lose one of its member airlines through bankruptcy, it could see a considerable change in its profits and income. Recently there have been a number of airlines filing for bankruptcy. Harsh financial conditions led to four out of the six carriers from US Legacy to file for bankruptcy between 2005 and 2001. These airlines included US Airways, Northwest, United and Delta. These four airlines were able to emphasize on cutting operational costs, downsizing and enhancing productivity in order to re- structure their firms. Despite the fact that mergers can lead to loses of profits and revenue, some mergers can be beneficial to an airline alliance. For instance, if a merger happens with a member airline with a non- member airline with a considerable competitive advantage and market share. In such a case, the merge would bring the alliance new business and enlarge its competitive advantage, as well as, its share of the market (Bisignani 2- 4).
Work cited
“An introduction to Oneworld – The alliance that revolves around you”. Oneworld. 2009. Web. 15 March 2011.
Bisignani, G. “State of the Air Transport Industry”. Address to the Annual General Meeting, International Air Transport Association. Vancouver, 2006. Web. 15 March 2011.
Bruckner, K. and Spiller, T. Competition and Mergers in Airline Networks. International Journal of Industrial Organization (1991): 323- 342. Print.
Doganis, R. The Airline Business in the 21st Century. New York: Wiley, 2001. Print.
Tagliabue, John. “5 Airlines Extend Limits Of Alliances”. The New York Times, 1997. Web. 15 March 2011.