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Prevention and Treatment Consequences of Infectious Disease
Prevention and Treatment Consequences of Infectious Disease
Efficient infection management in the struggle against infectious diseases has always been an intricate challenge, despite the significant success realized in this field. Infectious diseases are among the primary source of mortality and morbidity and are a principal stressor on government budgets. Communicable diseases epidemic, and natural calamities characterize worldwide hindrances to the accomplishment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Policymakers and health officials need to acknowledge that disasters do not increase infectious diseases and that the primary cause of death in the consequences of a calamity is non-contagious. Policymakers and health officials ought to acknowledge that dead bodies do not cause epidemics (Gersovitz, 2009). Contagious disease epidemic are resultant consequences that arise from the triggering of the risk factors of illness.
In every category of contagious disease, prevention and treatment depend on severing the transmission paths. A number of infectious diseases may be eradicated in the foreseeable future while others are at present manageable as a consequence of efficient public health systems. It is essential to mention that, interventions like immunization programs on a global scale are critical factors in this regard. Realizing freedom from transmittable disease is one of the primary concerns in humanity, although breaking the chains that confine several communities to communicable infections is an increasingly intricate task. The last recorded occurrence of smallpox was in essence a significant stride towards realizing global freedom from transmissible diseases. The replication of such an accomplishment has not been realized owing to logistical issues and a series of incidents that have occurred in contemporary times, rather than deficiencies in information or equipment (Bartholomew, 2009).
On a global perspective, poverty is one of the contributing factors that hinder success in the fight against transmittable diseases. This means that of millions of people around the world are confined by their conditions of living to the menace of transmissible diseases. Studies demonstrate that over 20% of the global population survives in utter poverty, where malnutrition affects over 30% of all the children, and 50% of the global population have inadequate access to vital medication. The mounting population growth globally, in tandem with rapid urbanization, means that millions of people who inhabit cities are obligated to live in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions. In many cities, there is a shortage of hygienic water and adequate sanitation, which consequently present a hotbed for contagious disease (Anderson, 2011).
Studies demonstrate that overcrowding leads to increased risk of respiratory diseases, as well as, diseases that are transmittable through contact with pathogens that may be found in food and water. Due to the economic and social concerns that affect several countries, health systems, which should provide protection against transmittable disease have, in several cases, crumbled or are absent. The immediate outcome of this scenario is a re-emergence of diseases that were previously controlled or ought to be controllable given more than enough resources (Bartholomew, 2009).
Controlling infectious diseases remains a worldwide concern, where the economic and social costs of transmissible diseases are a source of significant burden to communities. The global fight against transmittable diseases seems to be on the threshold of success in recent times, but there has been the emergence of new transmissible diseases and the re-emergence of old ones in several parts of the world. These incidents have triggered a new health catastrophe which threatens to destroy the accomplishments that have been made so far, in regard to the fight against transmissible diseases.
References
Anderson, M. (2011). Contagious Diseases in Humans. Biological Dynamics Journal, 3, 15-21.
Bartholomew, D. (2009). Managing Infectious Diseases. Nursing Management Journal, 31, 4-9. Gersovitz, F. (2009). The Economical Control of Communicable Diseases. Washington, DC: American Nurses Publishing.
Preventing Disruptive Behavior in the Urban Classroom Source education and treatment of children 30 no 1 F 2007 pages 85-98
References
Preventing Disruptive Behavior in the Urban Classroom: Source education and treatment of children 30 no 1 F 2007 pages 85-98
Objective
The study evaluated the impact of the Good Behavior Game adopted to help deal with disruptive behaviors experienced in urban elementary schools. To help conduct the study, the Good Behavior Game was applied on an urban class with a population of students with high poverty levels and the results noted down to help come up with a good conclusion. The study was also used to help evaluate the collateral effects faced by teachers following some of their behaviors while in class.
Summary
According to the article done from the conducted study, an achievement gap existed between urban and non-urban schools. Some of the things that contributed to this gap revolved around the high percentage rate of non-English, poor, minority and students with special needs in the urban schools@ page 86. Researchers pointed out the main reason for the poor achievements by the urban schools were the deterioration state, which the schools were at. According to page 86, this deterioration was caused by the mobility of urban schooling students, difficulties in recruiting teachers and the major cause being the discipline problems of the students.
The researchers found that the student’s disciplinary problems resulted from the academic diversity and behavioral needs required by them @ page 86. To deal with these problems, teachers needed to possess behavior management and pedagogy skills. Urban school going children’s’ ability to adjusting to the school environment had been negatively impacted by the early exposure to risk factors such as being raised by a single parent, being born by a teenage mother and child maltreatment. Poorly prepared unprofessional teachers with little knowledge of the city contributed further to the indiscipline of the students. Teacher’s preparation on how to deal with these behaviors was the key of bringing the perceived changes. Page 87 suggests that teachers should formulate strategies that would help in dealing with these intolerable behaviors.
An analysis done by Graziano, 2005 revealed that intolerable behaviors had taken a toll on teachers and this has led to some of them tendering their resignation letters or walking out of the school informally. To help deal with slow destruction that forces the teachers to quit from their work places, Graziano suggested that training in learning theory massively helped reduce the attrition. Teachers had tried developing functional relationships using performance feedback that included an observer trained to access the appraisal rate and the behavior-specific praise. The results revealed that the praising students by teachers put them in a risk of more aggression in their behavior @page 86.
Urban teachers had ill prepared strategies which often required following up, intended to help them manage their classes. According to Sutherland et al, 2000, the negative thing about these strategies was that with time they proved in effective. These failed strategies resulted to the need of adopting an easily implementable intervention that had over the time demonstrated its effectiveness in dealing with problem behavior. The best strategy was the Good Behavior Game that can be class wide applied and user friendly @page 87. The reason why Barrish et al 1969 considered it as the best strategy was that several studies were conducted intended to demonstrate its effectiveness in dealing with disruptive behavior. Its first successful application had been on fourth grade students who had high rates of out-of-seat and talk-outs behaviors. The proven success of the method led to an increase of its application in school settings that included special and regular education classroom @ page 88.
Type of design
This type of design was similar to the one indicated as it dealt with the students with bad behaviors. This would help understand their problems and come up with suitable solutions.
Research hypotheses
The study was intended to show the impact of the Good Behavior Game in dealing with disruptive behaviors by students of an urban elementary school class. The research hypothesis was that increase of on-task behavior during the implementation of the game would help reduce the disruptive behavior @page 87. Concerning the evaluation of the effects led by the application of the game on the teacher’s praise strategies, the authors shared the hypotheses that an improvement on the behavior of students which characterized by the student’s frequent opportunities to respond led to higher teacher’s praise rates.
Methodology: description of the participants
The venue of the study was a first-grade classroom in an elementary school located in an urban area. The school was situated in the North Eastern region of the country and it offered general education. The participants were in grades raging from K to 5 with 92% of them benefiting from free lunch while some bought lunch at a reduced price. 16% of the students knew how to read and were proficient in mathematics. The class used for the study had 11 females and 11 males which totaled to 22 the number of students used in the study @page 88.
Description of the used variables
The study used variables such as disruptive behaviors, statements based on teacher’s responses and student-on-task. Student’s attendance to the assigned tasks by their teachers was the definition of student-on-task behavior. They were passive and active forms of students-on-task-behavior, which included things such as writing answers on mathematics worksheet or maintaining an eye contact with the teacher during a lecture. Students’ disruptive behaviors were made up of academically unrelated things like talking amongst themselves, throwing objects and moving from one sitting position to another during a class session @page 88. These were the behaviors chosen to represent a host of other behaviors noted by the teachers during a class session.A teacher’s response was categorized either as a positive, neutral and negative response. A positive statement was a praise statement to a student in relation to his or her behavior. A neutral statement consisted neither of a positive or negative remark regarding a student’s behavior while a negative was a warning to a student in relation to his or her behavior.
Description of the used instruments
One of the materials approved by the teacher for use in the study was the reinforce preference assessment created on aneight and a half by 11 paper. The training material used to train the students and teachers was a script, which outlined and explained the rules and procedures of the game @page 89. There was the use of a recording sheet containing the names of the participating namesmade on a 17 by 11 paper. The sheet had a space where the recording of the team’s tally took place and entry spaces for the starting and stoppage time. Kitchen timers were also used to ensure that the game took place for 30mins. The experimenter used an audio cuing tape, recording sheet and earphones. The audio cueing tape had cues set at 10-secs under fixed time intervals. The recording had 60 divisions set at 10-sec intervals. Students used erasers, pencils and candy to help them fill the di-rections.
Description of the study procedures
Conduction of a preliminary assessment was the first procedure and this was done through the distribution of a reinforce survey to students. For the purposes of order ranking the students’ choices made in relation to the rewards given out, all students were given di-rections. A 30 minute math session with the teacher instructing the students in math was used to collect data on disruptive behaviors, students-on-task and teacher’s response statements. After the baseline setting, the experimenter trained the teacher in the procedures that help in the implementation of the Game. The procedures included reviewing of the Game’s rules with the class, accurate recording of occurrences of disruptive behavior and identifying the victor teams @page 90.
The implementation of the game happened daily during a 30-minute long math class which a 10-minute observationperiod. The 10-min observation varied throughout the 30-min math period to sample the experimental session. Prior to the Game implementation, the teacher had placed a recording sheet next to the blackboard. There was also the placement of a large envelop which contained numerical criterion coinciding with the Game’s period. This criterion was to remain a mystery to the participating students. The timer was set at the start of the Game andin the event of an occurrence of a disruptive behavior the teacher recorded this by marking the recording sheet under the team, which the student belonged. The teacher tallied the marks for each team and in the process revealing the criterion, which would be used, in the rewarding process. Finally, the teacher announced the results got by the all the teams announcing the winner in the process.
The person who collected all data and served as the experimenter was referred to as the primary observer while 2 graduate-level students blind to the study purpose served as observers. The observer had to be trained first on the observation treatment hence achieving proficiency. Scripted protocols were developed by the primary investigator to help evaluate observance of the Game’s procedures. The primary was to record during the 29% of each game play the whether the teacher was following the game procedures. The teacher’s behavior was also observed on a four minute interval.
Findings
The initial stages of the Game provided stable student’s on-task behavior at 53.25% while the disruptive behavior gradually increased to 36.5%. As the Game implementation went on, the trend for task-on-behavior increased to 68% except for activities during the 7th session while the disruptive behavior decreased to 22.33%. On the teacher behavior changes, they found out little change in relation to positive statements, which they made @ page 90.
Major conclusion
The results revealed that conducted study proved that the Game helped increase student’s on-task behavior and reduce disruptive behavior. There was also a link between first grade classrooms poorly managed, and the continued academic problems among aggressive boys from first grade. This link became stronger to boys from impoverished families. The study revealed that the proper management of classrooms was one of the important components of teaching.
Logic of the conclusions
The conclusions were logical as the results were got from practical implementation of the game. From the game, an individual could conclude that the increase in on-task students’ behavior activities reduced the rate of disruptive behaviors by students.
Educational implications
The researchers found out that the Good Behavior Game was instrumental in the establishment of on-task behavior that leads to more coverage of the syllabus. This was achieved by the extra work covered by the students in the different groups. Students became more involved in the learning process and thus they get clearer the concepts taught. The Game however required high-quality institutional practices for the maintenance of the practice. This institutional improvement resulted to better management of the schools improving the level of education in the schools.
Strengths and limitations
The study helped come up with ways of effectively manage indiscipline in classes. Teacher could easily control distraction behavior during class time and which lead to good coverage of the syllabus. This also helped reduce the resignation rate of teachers brought about by the high cases of indiscipline. Teachers who are not from the urban areas could succeed teaching in urban schools if they applied the Game method in dealing with disruptive behavior.
One limitation of the study conducted by the researchers is that the study failed to provide for the control of the institutional activities. Institutional activities are partially responsible for student’s behavior and failure to include them in the study lead to coming up with the wrong conclusions. The timing aspect of the data was a limitation of the study @page 88. The observation time was short and this would not provide the correct results. Use of a long time observation period provided results different to the ones provide by a 10 min observation period.
Personal perceptions
The authors’ failure to conduct the study on an extended time makes the study results unreliable. The 30min observation frame is a short period as time goes by, things such as fatigue leads to increase is disruptive behavior. The conduction of the study was done only once a day and this makes the results not be very correct. Students’ behavior in classes change during the course of the day, which has not been covered in the study.
I learnt that engaging students during teaching helps reduce distractions in classes. The group work make is easier for the coverage of the curriculum in time. This enables for smooth learning as the teacher can control the students easily.
As a teacher, I can relate with the topic when it comes to ways of using effective and easy to apply methods of controlling bad behavior in classes.
The Fourth Amendment of the US Constitution
The Fourth Amendment of the US Constitution
Name
Affiliation
Question 1
It is noted in the fourth amendment Law of United States that the police have could or could not have an entry to a person houses. Therefore, the below explanation will explain more about the above Law:
Search
It is noted that in a certain situation, the police might have access to entry to someone home to search. This is only possible when they have a reasonable suspicion of any nature of criminal activity even if the nature of the crime falls short of cause of the arrest. Based on the Terry v. Ohio case, the police have access to conduct a warrantless search to a person’s premise such as a house or home under certain circumstances as it may appear. In terry, for example, the Supreme Court noted that when a police offers witnesses unusual conduct that makes the officer think reasonably that the criminal conduct maybe be stirring. If, for example, the suspected person as a weapon and if he/she is dangerous to the police. The officer is allowed access to the person premises to ascertain if the suspect has a woman or not.
This type of search is known as Terry stop. To conduct such a search, the officer is mandated to consider articulated facts, taken with rational inference from the suspect to reasonable warrant as search to the premise of the suspect. As settled in Florida v. Royer (1983), such a hunt must be impermanent, and addressing must be restricted to the reason for the stop. For example, the police officer who stops an individual because they have sensible suspicion (Lasson, 1970). To affirm that the individual was driving in the wake of affirming that it is not stolen constrain the individual to answer addresses about whatever else might be available, for example, the ownership of contraband.
Question 2
Under the Fourth Amendment, law requirement must get composed authorization from a court of law, or qualified justice, to legally inquiry and seize evidence while exploring criminal action. A court stipends consent by issuing a writ known as an issue. A hunt or seizure is for the most part irrational and unlawful if directed without a substantial warrant and the police must acquire a warrant at whatever point practicable. Inquiries and seizures without a warrant are not viewed as outlandish if one of the particularly settled and outlined special cases to the warrant necessity applies. These exemptions apply “just in those outstanding circumstances in which extraordinary needs, past the typical requirement for law implementation, make the warrant and reasonable justification prerequisite impracticable. In these circumstances where the warrant necessity doesn’t have any significant bearing a pursuit or seizure regardless must be legitimized by some individualized suspicion of wrongdoing. In any case, the U.S. Incomparable Court cut out an exemption to the prerequisite of individualized suspicion. It decided that, “In restricted circumstances, where the security diversions involved by the pursuit are insignificant. Where an imperative legislative investment promoted by the interruption would be put in peril by a necessity of individualized suspicion” a hunt or seizure would at present be sensible.
Question 3
There are four principle circumstances in which a warrant is not needed for police to pursuit your home:
Consent. In the event that an individual who is in control of the property agrees to the pursuit without being pressured or deceived into doing along these lines, a hunt without a warrant is legitimate. Note that police don’t need to let you know that you have the right to deny an inquiry. However, you do. Likewise, note that if that in the case that the officer’s Allie is injured he, or she can agree to a hunt of the regular zones of your abode. However, not to your private territories (room, case in point). Then again, the Supreme Court as of late decided that one mate can’t agree to the pursuit of a house for the other.
Plain View: In the event that a Police as of now has the right to be on your property and sees contraband or confirmation of wrongdoing that is unmistakably noticeable. The protest may be legitimately seized and utilized as evidence. For instance, if the police are in your home on an abusive behavior at home call and see cannabis plants on the windowsill, the plants can be seized as confirmation.
Search Incident to Arrest: If you are arrested from your home or premises. The police may hunt down weapons or different associates to secure their wellbeing (known as an issue “range”) or they might overall pursuit to keep the decimation of confirmation.
Exigent Circumstances: This special case alludes to crisis circumstances where the procedure of getting a legitimate court order could trade off open wellbeing or could prompt a loss of confirmation. This includes cases of “direct pursuit” in which a suspect is going to escape. A late California Supreme Court choice decided that police may enter a suspect’s home without a warrant on the premise of the hypothesis that critical confirmation. Such as the suspect’s blood alcohol level may be lost otherwise.
Question 4
As a rule, the police are approved to lead a warrantless inquiry when the time it would take to get a warrant would imperil open wellbeing or lead to the loss of imperative confirmation. Here are a few circumstances in which most judges would maintain a warrantless pursuit: Following a health or medication case, the officer is allowed to go into the home of the victim without any warranty. A Police on a standard watch hears yells and shouts originating from a home, hurries in, and arrests a suspect for spousal ill-use. In addition, police “close behind” of an escaping criminal proceeds with the pursuit into the suspect’s abode so as to make the arrest.
In these sorts of crisis circumstances, an officer’s obligation to ensure individuals and save evidence exceeds the warrant prerequisite.
Question 5
A police officer doesn’t need a warrant to seize booty or evidence that is “in plain view” if the officer is in the region where the confirmation or contraband is initially spotted. The officer must have reasonable justification to accept the thing is evidence or contraband keeping in mind the end goal to seize it, however. So, if an officer who has legally pulled you over spots what seems to be cocaine on the traveler seat, he can most likely analyze it, seize it and arrest a suspect. Therefore, it can be noted that the Fourth Amendment has both positive and negative effects not only to the police but also the public.
References
Lasson, N. B. (1970). The history and development of the fourth amendment to the United States Constitution (pp. 51-105). Da Capo Press.