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PRACTICAL ETHICS DESIGNING CHILDREN
PRACTICAL ETHICS: DESIGNING CHILDREN
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Practical Ethics: Designing Children
Introduction
Genetic enhancement deals with the processes of transferring genetic material with an aim of modifying nonpathological human characteristics. The word describes the efforts of trying to make an individual not only well, but also better through optimization of his/her capabilities. Genetic enhancement has been used in various situations to improve individual conditions. There is need to understand that parents that choose genetic modification are not morally wrong and pose no harm to their children (Savulescu, 2009).
Parents who choose genetic enhancement on their children are not morally wrong because the process allows the child to have the best chance for a better life. In essence, parents have a moral purpose to care about the future of their children’s well-being. In a similar manner, parents should have a moral reason to aim to have children who have a better chance in future (Mayes, 2012, p. 27). For instance, if genetic testing offers the chance to detect chromosomal abnormalities, a parent has the reason to use it and decide if a child with such deficiencies would enjoy life. Through the use of genetic enhancement, the parent would know would be able to make a decision that bringing forth a child with serious deformities would not fully enjoy life (Savulescu & Kahane, 2009).
In reality, parents have an absolute obligation to bring forth a child whose well-being is assured. In cases where there is a possibility to choose or select the best conditions or situation for the well-being of the child, the parents are obligated to choose the best (Agar, 1998, p. 138). For instance, if genetic testing proves that if a couple decided to convince a child now, it would have Down syndrome, but if they wait for a year, the child would be normal, then they have the obligation to wait. In this way, parents use genetic enhancement to select a method that ensures that a child gets the best expected life. As long as the choice is possible and available, parents are morally right in taking the choice that gives the best life expected (Mayes, 2012, p. 27).
Savulescu (2009) argues that, additionally, genetic enhancement allows consistency in the lives of children. In many cases, people accept environmental interventions such as education, diet, exercise and training to improve the quality of life of the children. In a similar manner, biological enhancements that have the power to improve the quality of life that ensures satisfied living conditions. For example, if there is the possibility of genetic modifications that allows more intelligence, awareness, discipline, memory, relieves pain and offers comfort, it would be efficient to use it to enhance the well-being of the children. Genetic enhancement acts similarly to preventing a disease and in this way, it becomes morally acceptable to be used with children (Kamm, 2005). If a child is ill, the pain causes distress that result in the child losing meaning of life. Just like treating an illness, biological modifications enable the children’s opportunities for their well-being to grow and so parents need to use it. The use of biological enhancements enhances the well-being of children and individuals. There is a moral obligation for parents to enable genetic modification when the opportunity is available (Savulescu & Kahane, 2009).
Conclusion
The concept of genetic modifications has been in use over the years in an effort to improve life. Parents who choose genetic enhancement are morally right in ensuring that children get a chance for the best life. In essence, the biological modifications better the life of an individual, and if there is a possibility for a parent to select it, it should be utilized.
Bibliography
Agar, N 1998, ‘Liberal eugenics’, Public Affairs Quarterly, pp. 137-155.
Kamm, M 2005, ‘Is there a problem with enhancement?’, The American Journal of Bioethics, 5, 3, pp. 5-14.
Mayes, S 2012, ‘Genetic Enhancement: Definitions, Methodologies, and the Effect of Parental Attitudes’, Penn Bioethics Journal, 8, 2, pp. 25-28, Academic Search Premier, EBSCOhost, viewed 4 June 2014.
Savulescu, J, & Kahane, G 2009, ‘The moral obligation to create children with the best chance of the best life’, Bioethics, 23, 5, pp. 274-290.
Savulescu, J 2009, ‘Genetic interventions and the ethics of enhancement of human beings’, Readings in the Philosophy of Technology, p. 417.
The Fight in Darfur for Control of Sudans Oil
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The Fight in Darfur for Control of Sudan’s Oil
Introduction
The Darfur conflict is identified as the ongoing civil war taking place in the Darfur region of southern Sudan. The conflict began in 2003 after the taking of arms by Justice and Equality Movement as well as Sudan Liberation Movement, following the accusation against the Sudanese government for supporting the Arabs instead of the Black Africans. One side of the conflict is made up of SLM/A as well as the JEM, while the other side of the conflict is made up of Janjaweed (De, 2007). This conflict is linked to a large number of deaths culminating from starvation, direct combat and diseases, large numbers of losses, forced migration, mass displacements and huge humanitarian crisis. Many causes are attributed to the war, but the main causes include fighting for oil and land. In terms of fighting for oil, Sudan is rich in oil fields but the oil fields are mostly concentrated on the southern part where Darfur is located. Though the war started in 2003 due to the conflict between the Arabs and the Black Africans, it was also sparked by the conflict over oil fields between the Sudanese government and US. US funded the SPLA with the aim of creating a rift between Southern and Northern Sudan, while the Sudanese government funded Janjaweed to reduce the rebellion of SPLA. This raised the conflict. In terms, the conflict is due to the loss of land by the Black Africans who are farmers to the Arabs who are nomads. The Arabs who migrated into southern Sudan felt that they were superior to the black Africans in the southern and hence decided to take over their land sparking the war. The war has taken its toll on the people of southern Sudan, but it can be solved through international intervention and the collaboration of the Arabs and the black Africans in southern Sudan. This is their land and they should be willing to protect it. Although the war in Darfur is based on fighting over land and oil, both the international community and the people of Southern Sudan can still forge peace in Darfur.
The war conflict
Sudan is rich in oil fields but the oil fields are mostly concentrated in Darfur, the southern part of Sudan (Johnson, 2004). The fight in Darfur for control of Sudan’s oil fields is an ongoing civil war that started in 2003, and taking place in the Darfur region of southern Sudan (De Waal, 2007; Johnson, 2004). The conflict began after the Justice and Equality Movement (JEM) and the Sudan Liberation Movement (SLM) took arms and accused the Sudanese government for supporting the Arabs instead of the Black Africans for the oil business (Johnson, 2004). One side of the conflict is made up of SLM army and JEM, while the other side of the conflict is made up of Janjawiid (De Waal, 2007). Though the war started as a result of conflict between the Arabs and the Black Africans, it was also sparked by the conflict over oil fields between the Sudanese government and U.S. U.S funded the SPLA with the aim of creating a rift between Southern and Northern Sudan, while the Sudanese government funded Janjaweed to reduce the rebellion of SPLA. This raised the conflict (Flint & De Waal, 2008). The war in Darfur could be stimulated by the need to control Sudan’s oil and retain land identity but it has more costs than benefits, and thus a long term peace solution should be identified.
Genocide
The fight in Darfur has led to an increased number of deaths through direct combat, starvation, and diseases (Levy, 2009). Levy (2009) argues that since the beginning of the Darfur conflict in the late 2003, the war has claimed over half a million lives and left over two million people homeless. Nevertheless, the violence is ongoing and the shocking part is that it seems to be a war of the government against its own people. Countless Sudanese continue being murdered, raped, and attacked by the Sudanese army and the infamous Janjaweed militia which is controlled by the Sudanese government. Furthermore, as the war continues the Southern Sudan farmers are unable to continue with their farming lifestyle and hence there is a devastating shortage of food. Millions of people are dying and risking ill health as a result of starvation and malnutrition. Mamdani (2010) describes that the deaths caused in the war goes beyond the ethnic cleansing of the Africans by the Arabs. Mamdani (2010) further argues that the term genocide in Darfur has become politically charged in many world agendas. Genocide should be prevented by all means because it is bizarre and archaic way of dealing with problems in a region. However, Mamdani (2010) urges that everyone commenting and reacting against the genocide in Darfur should first strive to read and understand the history, politics, and culture of Darfur. This statement shows that the genocide cannot simply be stopped because it is against humanitarianism norms. Peacemakers should dig deeper rather than just the superficial urge to condemn the murderers and blacklist the propellers of violence. The situation needs to be solved after analysis of historical, political and cultural contexts.
Nevertheless, it cannot be accepted that innocent people should lose their lives just because of disagreements between the lines of politics, religion, or ethnicity. The government of Sudan should be held responsible and urged to involve in consensus that will help bring peace to the country. After all, the government needs to protect the people that it is meant to serve.
Humanitarian Crisis
The war has caused a large humanitarian crisis concern of matters such as mass displacement of people, forced migration, and loss of property (De Waal, 2007; Flint and De Waal, 2008). According to De Waal (2007) Darfur became synonymous with war, humanitarian crisis, and massacre since it hit the international headlines in 2004. The United Nations has also described the Darfur situation as the world’s worst humanitarian crisis (Flint & De Waal, 2008). Since 2004, the oil and land conflict in the Darfur region has resulted to sprawling refugee camps, rape, and lurid accounts of Arabs murdering the Africans. Apart from the ugly scene that results from the war, there is a complex twist that involves religion, politics and several decades of internal unrest. This humanitarian tragedy has stirred various groups of people in the population including politicians, world celebrities and students. The challenging part is that the Darfur war is very hard to understand because of the twisted events (Johnson, 2004). While some analysts believe that the war is fuelled by a long internal civil unrest between the Arabs and the Black Africans, other analysts believe that the conflict has a religious base on it (Johnson, 2004). There are claims that conflicts arise as seen of the Sudanese government giving more priority to the Arabs than the Africans in the control, of oil, and worse, the Arabs murder and rape a number of Africans as a result of the conflict. This aspect is hard to understand, because, which government would watch its people get massacred or involved in genocide without taking measures against such actions. Other twisted parts include the sponsoring of the Southern People’s Party (SPLA) by the U.S to drill oil but which has been interpreted as an aim to create a rift between the north and south Sudan. Should the U.S withdraw its sponsorship of a project that will enable a developing economy to reap significant economic benefits? Some critics believe that Sudan, as a county should be left to make its own decisions, but then again, when issues of humanity cannot be sorted, there needs to be a third party that can fight for the rights of the suffering innocent people. Another twist involves the rise of the JEM and SLM to fight for their land and placement of Black African people to control the oil operation. However, on the other side, there is the government introducing the Janjawiid militia to fight its own people in the JEM, and SLM, who are fighting for their land (Johnson, 2004).
The humanitarian crisis in Darfur will continue to occur if the root cause of the situation is not addressed. Considering that there are multi-perspective approaches to the real cause of war and conflict, those seeking peace restorations in the region should address each and every aspect, for a long term solution. The short term solution at the moment is for the United Nations and other charity organizations to provide for solutions to the humanitarian disparities affecting the people, and these include custody, migration permits, food and sanitation.
Disunity and weakened international relations
The continuation of war undermines the global quest for peace and unity at this current age (Johnson, 2004; Mamdani, 2010). Darfur is a locus of a hideous war that has stimulated the outrage of millions of people across the world (De Waal, 2007). There is a high level of activist mobilization and level of media coverage but the society and politics of the Darfur is yet to be understood. As a result of the war in Sudan, cultural evolution in ethnicity and religious identity has taken toll, for instance the presence of the infamous Janjaweed militia (De Waal, 2007). There is also a breakdown in the local administration and the emergence of resistance movements, Arab militia, and regional dimensions to the conflict. The conflict resulted as the Black Africans perceived that they were losing their land to the Arab migrants. Black Africans in southern Sudan are originally farmers while the Arabs came as nomads. The Arabs who migrated into southern Sudan felt that they were superior to the black Africans in the southern and hence decided to take over their land sparking the war (Johnson, 2004). The quest for peace at this scenario should therefore be addressed from two dimensions; First, the identity of land, and second; the control of oil. There needs to be collaboration of the Arabs and the black Africans in southern Sudan. This is their land and it does not only provide a dwelling place, but also offers potent for prospective business. Both local and international interventions should be used to ensure that there is a long term solution for peace (Mamdani, 2010). On one side of the argument, it can be said that the land belongs to the Africans and this also means that the oil fields should be controlled by them. On the other hand, proponents argue that the Arabs have more specialized expertise in the mining of oil and thus should also be given an opportunity to lead the exploitation of the oil minefields. At the drawing table, the sovereignty of the people of Sudan should be respected. A lot of efforts will be needed to establish peace and encourage the harmonious existence of the Arabs and Black Africans. Anyway, this is urgently needed because the more the conflict continues, the less the people of Sudan experience the economic benefits of oil. De Waal (2007) argues that efforts towards peace in Darfur should incorporate both historical and new original research. By understanding the specific causes of the war and its dimensions, specific interventions can be arrived at, to help solve the war problem and let the Darfur people lead a peaceful life once more. There are many prospects for an eternal peace solution in the Darfur region. These include negotiations that can take place through political organizations such as the African Union Mediation, or the Abuja Peace Talks; religious and local political groups; and international peace forums.
Nevertheless, there are also conflicts resulting from various approaches that are being used to restore peace in Darfur and punish any influencers of the war and human injustices. Flint and De Waal (2008) argue that the International criminal court (ICC) risks distorting the on-going peace initiatives in Darfur. Flint and De Waal (2008) believe that if the ICC opens a case against the Sudanese senior officials for their role in the Darfur war crimes, the peace process will be jeopardized and the efforts of the deployed peace makers in the region will be in vain. On the other hand, proponents of punishment against the offenders believe it the only way to ensure that the innocent people who suffered in the war process get justice (Mamdani, 2010). However, as the situation is at the moment, Darfur needs more than just the local interventions. The country should stop being in denial of the war and allow the assistance of the international community, otherwise, the war may continue for a long time.
Although the war in Darfur is based on fighting over land and oil, there are several twists of events and a lot of groups in conflict with one another. The war has taken toll on the people of southern Sudan, but it can be solved through international intervention. The international community and the people of Southern Sudan can still forge peace in Darfur, by addressing all the issues that have resulted to this conflict.
Conclusion
The Darfur war in southern Sudan dates back from the late 2003. Darfur has since become synonymous with war and ugly scenes of massacre and other humanitarian crises. The root cause of the war is believed to be the fight over the control of oil wells in Southern Sudan and also land, which has set the Black Africans and Arabs against one another. The twist of the situation is that so many parties are involved in conflicts against one and as a result, an emergence of militia groups. The most notable militia group is the Janjaweed, set and manipulated by the government against its own people. The war in Darfur has resulted to deaths, forced migrations, refugees, and poor relations of the Sudan government and the international community. Nevertheless, the war in Darfur has more costs than benefits, and thus a long term peace solution should be identified from both the local and international community.
References
De, W. A. (2007). War in Darfur and the search for peace. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University.
Flint, J., & De, Waal. A. (2008). Darfur: A Short History of a Long War. London, UK: Zed Books.
Johnson, D. H. (2004). The Root Causes of Sudan’s Civil Wars. Oxford, UK: Currey.
Levy, J. 2009. Genocide in Darfur. New York, NY: Rosen Pub.
Mamdani, M. 2010. Saviors and Survivors: Darfur, Politics, and the War on Terror. New York, NY: Doubleday.
The fictional film Sarahs Key by Gilles Paquet-Brenner
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Sarah’s Key
The fictional film “Sarah’s Key by Gilles Paquet-Brenner brings to light the challenges or the horrific nature of life faced by Jewish men, women and even children during the historic times of the holocaust. The film setting relates to the happenings of the ancient times to our day a today live by having settings of 1942 when Vel’ d’hiv Roundup for the Jews assisted and setting of today’s ways of live. All characters in the play portray the suffering of the Jewish community both in the ancient times and today. For instance, Sarah who is the protagonist in the film faces suffering from the time she was a young girl to the time of her death as an adult. Towards the beginning of the story, Sarah and her parents are forced to leave their home by fresh police to go and provide forced labor. Even though she was a young girl she knew the dangers that surrounded her and her family and this fears led her to hide her brother. Later in the film Sarah blames herself for the death of her brother since she did not get back to open the box for her brother who she had hid in a closed box to his death. These similar challenges are experienced in our day today life as depicted by Julia a journalist who faces hardship due to the falling of her family. The challenges faced by all the characters in the play either result to negative solutions like death and divorce. The film is a depiction of how history influences current events as well as how in times of conflict the innocent are not spared.
Sarah’s key provides a widow to the injustice that occurred as a result of the 2nd world war to the Jews and these challenges are noticed up to date. History may bring major hopes and positive thinking but happenings behold our control influence our future negatively. Sarah a major character in the play hoped for a better life that was free from the oppression of unjust authority; the French police. Her hopes were was not achieved but just worsened when he was completely unable to get back home and safe her brother. The extreme unjust control of our immediate authority can result to more suffering to the future even on the present time as illustrated by Julia a major journalist who feels frustrated under the authority of her husband to the extent of seeking divorce. Though the occurrences surrounding the film happened long ago during the Vel’ d’hiv Roundup they still highly influence the happenings of today actions as noticed in Julia and Sarah’s son William. History does not represent hope even to the minorities, in the past or during the World war two children were disregarded and their presence assumed and this acted negatively to their wellbeing. This is exactly what happened to Sarah’s brother in the hands of the French police, similar occurrence is noticed when Julia takes her daughter to a unfriendly negotiations. It is also what happens to William since he had hardly been informed about the whereabouts of his own mother until he was an adult and their mercy.
Clearly, the film is a clear representation on the relationship between history of Vel’ d’hiv Roundup to the present times. Vel’ d’hiv Roundup which happened in 1942 just like the time the film is acted portray the black hours of man that still remain in our history. Issues such as racism, injustice and inhumanity acts which humans have continued to struggle with for years are brought to light through the movie. For years, Jewish adults fault in the society post war and children were removed from homes while other died in homes and in camps due to poor living condition. This are the same issues that face us today, the economic strains, and the need to attain freedom are the challenges that people face in the modernized life. Due to the increasing need to gain material wealth such as land like what Julian inherited or what William was chancing, we find that we disregard some important aspects in life. History does not only contribute to our problems today as seen in Julia’s and William’s present life but also gives a major purpose or direction on how we handle matters today(Jackson, Julian 47).
The film while mainly set in the context of both modern day France and France during the round up and unmerited persecution of Jews and Jewish families, is also set during the second World War, and depicts how the Holocaust affected other European countries, with some Jews being offered up as peace offerings aimed at assuaging Hitler and his seemingly unstoppable army. French cooperation though coerced, was based on the film carried out a bit overzealously to a certain degree. The film depicts a situation of coerced peace, in which the French due to their humiliation by the German troops, had been forced to eat humble pie and cooperate with the Germans, as can also be seen in instances where French police officers opted to turn a blind eye in some cases for the sake of their people. Indeed compared to the probable mood of most soldiers and law enforcement at the time, the film comes quite close to depicting the sabotage of German endeavors by the French. Indeed if looked at from the context of France as an unwilling ally in the monstrosities perpetrated by the Hitler regime, certain events within the film become quite understandable (Sommerville, 38). For instance, the decision by the soldier to allow both Sarah and Rachel to escape from the French run camp, is perhaps a clear indication that a majority of the French were unwilling participants in the horrific exercise. This unwillingness to participate is also seen when the officer searching for Sarah and Rachel deliberately abandons his search for the two girls after seeing the physician carrying away Rachel’s dead body.
The fact that both Julia’s father in law, as well as William’s father (Sarah’s husband) find it quite difficult to narrate the occurrences of the period in question, depict the fact that a majority of the French people disagreed with the roundup, as well as events that followed, to the extent that it is seemingly a part of their history they wish they could do something about. Indeed the speech by President Francois Hollande on July 22nd 2012, during the commemoration of the 70th anniversary of the Vel d’Hiv roundup was full of regretful connotations, as well as the implied feeling amongst the French that they had let their Jewish brothers and sisters down. Indeed the unwillingness of France as a participant in the persecution of Jews is avidly captured when Hollande says in his speech “Honor was saved by the Righteous, by all those who were able to rise up against barbarism, by those anonymous heroes who hid a neighbor here, helped another there, and risked their lives to save those of innocent people” (Hollande, n.p). The commemoration of the 70th anniversary, as well as the acknowledgement by previous Presidents such as Jacques Chirac as to the occurrences of the roundup, testify to the significance the event holds for most French people. The reluctance by those present during the commission of the atrocities as can be seen during Julia’s investigations, is indeed an accurate depiction of the current situation in France, as a majority seem ashamed of the fact that the Vel d’Hiv roundup is even a part of their history.
The film is in a way set at a time when people do not really understand the significance of the roundup, such that some of the French directly affected by it are unaware of its significance. A huge majority of the French people simply opts to ignore that part of their history, or is honestly unaware of its existence and significance. The fact that William is totally unaware of his own mother’s history and heritage is testament to the effect that past occurrences can have on relationships. Not only is William oblivious of his mother’s past, but he is even oblivious of something as significant as his own heritage. To an extent, occurrences such as the roundup, usually provoke withdrawal, as well as spark of further injustices, rather than the victims’ deserved justice. Not only did Sarah’s experiences deprive her of the opportunity to live a normal life and have a normal relationship with her son, but they even led to her committing suicide, mainly due to the guilt she felt. Such feelings usually apply even to real life situations, as can be seen by the determination by the French government to rectify past mistakes, such unwelcome history seemingly influences even future generations that never participated in any way.
The creation of the film itself, is to a large extent proof of how significant history usually is in shaping current events. Though set in different times, 1942 and 1996, the influence that occurrences of the earlier time had in Sarah’s life, and subsequently in Julia’s life, are accurate depictions of how current events not just in France, but all around the world are shaped by past events. The film is contextually accurate in how it depicts events, emotions and behaviors both during the roundup, immediately after, as well as a number of years later, essentially creating awareness over the significance of the events of 1942 and the effects more than 50 years later.
Works Cited
Hollande, Francois (2012, July 22). The ‘Crime Committed in France, by France.’ 15th April2013. Web
Sommerville, Donald . The Complete Illustrated History of World War Two: AnAuthoritativeAccount of the Deadliest Conflict in Human History with Analysis of Decisive Encountersand Landmark Engagements. Lorenz Books, 2008
Jackson, Julian . France: The Dark Years. Oxford University Press, 2001.