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Corruption is one of the most ancient and complex phenomena that are present in forms since times of civilization
Corruption
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Corruption
Corruption is one of the most ancient and complex phenomena that are present in forms since times of civilization. Corruption has been fundamental in enhancing the abuse of public resources for personal gains. Mexico is one of the developing countries that have largely been affected by corruption, where the political class has played a bigger role in exploiting public resources. It is important to appreciate that corruption harms a country and, more importantly, its people. Understanding corruption as a vice is paramount for citizen s because it forms a basis for a nation to mitigate or end corruption. In some cases, Mexico has been a hub of corruption, such as the bribe that Wal-Mart paid in 2012 for them to acquire a permit and zonal operation from the local government (Ionescu, 2011). The list of firms that have engaged in corruption cases with the Mexican government is long. These cases have largely explained the extensive corruption activities that are witnessed in Mexico. These cases have widely increased the Mexican concerns, and today, corruption is the second most critical concern after security (Chong et al. 2015). Mexico is one of the most corrupt countries. This paper will explore some of the causes of corruption and the serious effects of corruption, and how corruption has influenced its economy and living standards.
Corruption in Mexico is a vice that is perpetuated by politicians and government officials. They are the primary cause of corruption that diverts the public resources into their companies. The poor leadership and lack of oversight bodies that ensure that public resources are utilized appropriately are other causes that significantly played a major role in Mexico’s increased corruption activities (Dimant & Tosato, 2018). It is also important to appreciate that the failed and compromised judicial system in Mexico has also encouraged corruption because perpetrators are not brought to book. The desire for easily acquired wealth has also played a major role in encouraging corruption among government officials. Generally, these are the crucial cause of corruption in Mexico.
One of the major setbacks of corruption in Mexico is that corruption acts as the largest problem that makes business operation and investment in Mexico difficult (Dimant & Tosato, 2018). This is an economic setback for the country and the people for various reasons. First, new businesses in the country help the government generate more revenue that can be utilized to improve various critical sectors of the economy. New businesses also create a new job for the citizen of Mexico. This increases their living standards because of the income they earn from the jobs. With a high level of corruption, which requires a new business to offer bribes before they are given operating licensing by the local government, most invested choose to invest in other countries. Another serious effect associated with corruption in Mexico is the increased national debt. Increased public debt increases the cost of living because a country raises its taxes to ensure that it collects enough revenue to pay the debts. As a result, increased poverty levels, poor infrastructure, and high living costs have dominantly affected the Mexicans (Dimant & Tosato, 2018).
Corruption in Mexico has also influenced its politics, with a legal framework being put in place to curb corruption activities. Over time, voters have been a bribe to vote for a particular candidate, with most candidates engaging in corrupt activities to secure adequate funds for the campaigns (Morris, 2012). This has largely affected the Mexicans because corrupt leaders are elected into government and later embezzle public funds to recover the money used during campaigns. Notably, drug abuse has been a tool of the campaign used by most politicians. This has been attributed to corruption because most crimes do not undergo the justice system. As a result, few criminal cases are reported living the citizen vulnerable to drug abuse (Mercille, 2011). Drug traffickers have also bribe police officers for them to undertake their drug business without facing the law.
In conclusion, corruption is a national concern in Mexico that has largely affected its economy, increased poverty levels, and increased the cost of living. Corruption has increased the country’s debt and discouraged prospective investors from investing in the country. It is a vice that requires a good legal framework and political goodwill to ensure that corruption is fully dealt with.
Reference
Chong, A., De La O, A. L., Karlan, D., &Wantchekon, L. (2015). Does corruption information inspire the fight or quash the hope? A field experiment in Mexico on voter turnout, choice, and party identification. The Journal of Politics, 77(1), 55-71.
Dimant, E., &Tosato, G. (2018). Causes and effects of corruption: What has past decade’s empirical research taught us? A survey. Journal of Economic Surveys, 32(2), 335-356.
Ionescu, L. (2011). Mexico’s pervasive culture of corruption. Economics, management, and financial markets, 6(2), 182-187.
Mercille, J. (2011). Violent narco-cartels or US hegemony? The political economy of the ‘war on drugs’ in Mexico. Third World Quarterly, 32(9), 1637-1653.
Morris, S. D. (2012). Corruption, drug trafficking, and violence in Mexico. The Brown Journal of World Affairs, 18(2), 29-43.
Definitions of dependable and undependable variables
Statistics
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Assignment Three
Question One
Definitions of dependable and undependable variables
Dependent variables are variables that result with respect to what surrounds them and they represent the amount produced. Independent variables are variables that cause things to happen and represent the reason why things happen. In this problem, the amount gained in weekly rent is dependent on the size of the apartment. This makes the weekly rent the dependable variable while the apartment size is the independent variable.
i) Finding regression coefficients
The Number of values is 25.
We must now go ahead to find XY and X2,
Where XY= weekly rent X size and X2=the square of weekly rent
Next, we must now find the summation of each value differently i.e. ∑X, ∑Y, ∑XY, ∑X2
Apartment Weekly Rent ($) Size (square meters) XY Y2 X2
1 219 79 17,301 6,241 47,961
2 369 135 49,815 18,225 136,161
3 277 101 27,977 10,201 76,729
4 346 114 39,444 12,996 119,716
5 219 67 14,673 4,489 47,961
6 392 138 54,096 19,044 153,664
7 381 106 40,386 11,236 145,161
8 216 67 14,472 4,489 46,656
9 202 65 13,130 4,225 40,804
10 265 89 23,585 7,921 70,225
11 323 102 32,946 10,404 104,329
12 381 119 45,339 14,161 145,161
13 531 184 97,704 33,856 281,961
14 415 127 52,705 16,129 172,225
15 323 109 35,207 11,881 104,329
16 335 114 38,190 12,996 112,225
17 254 116 29,464 13,456 64,516
18 392 117 45,864 13,689 153,664
19 277 107 29,639 11,449 76,729
20 265 83 21,995 6,889 70,225
21 369 126 46,494 15,876 136,161
22 381 97 36,957 9,409 145,161
23 277 70 19,390 4,900 76,729
24 185 93 17,205 8,649 34,225
25 404 111 44,544 12,321 163,216
Totals 7,998 2,636 888,795 295,132 2,725,894
Using the universal Regression Equation(y) = a + bx Slope(b) = (NΣXY – (ΣX)(ΣY)) / (NΣX2 – (ΣX)2) Intercept(a) = (ΣY – b(ΣX)) / N
Where
x and y are the variables. b = The slope of the regression line a = The intercept point of the regression line and the y axis. N = Number of values or elements X = First Score Y = Second Score ΣXY = Sum of the product of first and Second Scores ΣX = Sum of First Scores ΣY = Sum of Second Scores ΣX2 = Sum of square First Scores
We substitute the values we have found to come up with the equation
Regression Equation(y) = a + bx Slope(b)
= (NΣXY – (ΣX)(ΣY)) / (NΣX2 – (ΣX)2) Intercept(a) = (ΣY – b(ΣX)) /
N
We first find the value of b, the formula to use to find the value of b is:
Slope (b) = (NΣXY – (ΣX)(ΣY)) / (NΣX2 – (ΣX)2)
b = (25*888,795)-(7,998*2,636)/{25*2,725,894-(7,998)2}
b = (22,219,875-21,082,728)/(68,147,350-63,968,004)
b = 1,137,147/4,179,346
b = 0.27
Intercept (a) = {ΣY – b(ΣX)} / N
= {2,636-0.27*7,998}/25
= {2,636-2,159.46}/25
= 476.54/25
= 19.06
Having found the values of (a) and (b), it now becomes easy to find the regression equation (y).
Taking (b) to be the value 277
(y) = a + bx Slope(b)
=19.06+0.27*277
=19.06+74.79
=93.85
ii) Simple linear regression equation is an analysis that statistically associates any two variables and it brings out the connection between any two variables.
These regression coefficients show that there is a high rate of dependency of the weekly rent to apartment size.
The weekly rental cost for an apartment that has 100m2 might be between 277 given that a 101m2 goes for $277 a week.
No. The data given above does not give predictions of an apartment size below 65 square meters.
I would recommend the 100 square meter apartment that goes for $294 because the price per size ratio of this apartment is bigger compared to the 120 square meter room that goes for $329.
Question Two
In order to find the linear correlation coefficient for the values in the above question, the following equation is used;
r = ∑ (xy)/√ [(∑x2) * (∑y2)]
Where ∑ = summation symbol
x = x1-x
x1= x value observation for i
x = mean x value
y = y1-y
y1= y value for observation i
y = mean y value
The mean values for x and y are;
Mean value for x = 7,998/25, = 319.92
Mean value for y = 2,363/25, = 94.52
The linear correlation coefficient (r) = ∑ (xy)/√ [(∑x2) * (∑y2)]
r = 7,998*2,363/√[2,725,894*295,132]
r = 18,899,274/(1651.03*543.26)
r = 18,899,274/896938.558
r = 21.07
This value indicates that the lesser the size of the room the cheaper the cost.
It should be noted that for a single independent variable case R2 = r2
Where R2 = Coefficient of determination & r = Simple correlation coefficient
In this case, 0≤R2≤1
When R2= 1, then the slopes becomes a perfect linear relationship
When R2 = 0, then there is no linear relationship between x and y
Estimated standard of error regression (slope)
First, we find the standard error of estimate SE, which is found by;
SE = √ [SSE/(n-k-1)]
Where SSE = Sum of square errors, n = Sample size, and k = number of
independent variables
SE = √SSE/n-2
SE = √21.07/(25-2)
SE = √21.07/23, = √ 0.9160, = 0.957
Then we find the estimated standard of error regression (slope)
Sb1 = SE / √∑x2 – {(∑x) 2 / n}
Where Sb1 = estimate of standard error of the least squares slope
Sb1 = 0.957 / √7,9982 – {7,9982/ 25}
= 0.957 / √63968004 – {63968004 / 25}
= 0.957 / √63968004 – 2558720.16
= 0.957 / √61409283.84
= 0.957 / 7836.41, = 0.00012
Testing for evidence of a linear relationship
t = (b1 – β1) / Sb1
Where: b1 = sample regression slope, β1 = hypothesized slope.
Taking the sample regression slope to be 0 and hypothesized slope to be 1, t then
becomes;
= (0-1) / 0.00012
= -8333.33, since there are no negatives in this case, the answer is said to be zero.
The linear correlation coefficient (r) shows that there is a relationship between weekly rent to that of apartment size while the evidence shown from the calculations in c above show that there is no linear relationship between apartment size and weekly rent.
Question Three
Since we are not provided with the standard deviation, we must find it in order to carry on with this question.
Number of samples (n) = 27, mean (x) = 45
Standard deviation (s) = √ {∑ (X-x) 2 / n}
= √ {(1179 – 45)2 / n}
= √ {(1134)2 / 27)}
= √ 47670
= 218.33
The standard deviation was derived from the samples; this becomes a t-test
The hypothesis here becomes:
H0: μ ≥ 30
H1: μ < 30
The test statistics is:
t = = (x-μ) / (s-√n)
= (45-30) / (218.33-√27)
= 15 / 213.13
= 0.07
The t critical value associated with this is:
-tα (n-1) = -t.2605 = 2.3661
The test statistics does not fall in the rejected region because 0.07>203661. H0 is
not rejected.
There is enough evidence that the average processing days has changed from 45 days.
Using the five number summary, we get:
Mean (x) = (16+21.75+39+64.25+92) / 5 = 46.6
Standard deviation (s) = = √ {∑ (X-x) 2 / n}
= √ {(233 – 46.6)2 / 5}
= √ {(186.4)2 / 5)}
= √ 6948.992
= 83.36
Sample number (n) = 5
The standard deviation was derived from the samples; this becomes a t-test
The hypothesis here becomes:
H0: μ ≥ 30
H1: μ < 30
The test statistics is:
t = = (x-μ) / (s-√n)
= (46.6-30) / (83.36-√5)
= 16.6 / 81.12
= 0.205
The t critical value associated with this is:
-tα (n-1) = -t.405 = 0.364
The test statistics does not fall in the reject region because 0.07>0.364. H0 is
not rejected.
In both (a) and (c), there is no rejection region because the p-value is greater than the
Alpha.
Question Four
From the information given, standard deviation (σ) = 0.05, random sample (n) = 100, and a mean (x) of 1.99. Since the standard deviation did not come from the sample, this becomes a Z-test.
The null and alternatives then become:
Ho : μ ≤ 2
H1 : μ > 2
At 0.5 level of significance, using the critical value approach
Z = (x-μ) / (σ-√n)
= (1.99-2) / (0.05-√100)
= -0.01 / -9.95
= 0.001
Probability (p) value when (σ) = 0.05, and its meaning
p-value = P(Z>0.001) = 0.00001
The probability of getting a sample whose mean is 1.99 liters or more when H0 is true is 0.00001.
When σ = 95, the population mean in bottles is:
Z = (x-μ) / (σ-√n)
= (1.99-2) / (0.95-√100)
= -0.01 / -0.05
= 0.2
Comparing conclusions in (a) and (c).
For a large test statistic, the critical value is large and its p-value is small than even the alpha value.A rejection is made in part (a) if test statistics is found in the rejection region, andA rejection is made in part (c) if the alpha is greater than the p-value.
Question Five
The probability that a share fund lost 18%
Event A1. 10% share fund loss.
Event A2. 18% share fund loss.
Event B. 8% standard deviation
In terms of probability, we know that:
P(A1) = 10% = -0.1
P(A2) = 18% = -0.18
P(B│A1) = 8% of A1 = 0.08*-0.1 = -0.008
P(B│A2) = 8% of A2 = 0.08*-0.18 = -0.0144
P( A1 | B ) = P( A1 ) P( B | A1 )
P( A1 ) P( B | A1 ) + P( A2 ) P( B | A2 )
P( A1 | B ) = (-0.1)(-0.008) / [(0.1)(-0.008) + (-0.18)(-0.0144)]
P( A1 | B ) = 0.235
Probability that a share fund gained in value i.e. 1% profit
Event A1. 10% share fund loss.
Event A2. 1% share fund profit.
Event B. 8% standard deviation
In terms of probability, we know that:
P(A1) = 10% = -0.1
P(A2) = 1% = 0.001
P(B│A1) = 8% of A1 = 0.08*-0.1 = -0.008
P(B│A2) = 8% of A2 = 0.08*0.001 = 0.00008
P( A1 | B ) = P( A1 ) P( B | A1 )
P( A1 ) P( B | A1 ) + P( A2 ) P( B | A2 )
P( A1 | B ) = (-0.1)(-0.008) / [(-0.1)(-0.008) + (-0.1)(0.00008)]
P( A1 | B ) = 0.897
The probability that share fund gained at least 10%
Event A1. 10% share fund loss.
Event A2. 10% share fund profit.
Event B. 8% standard deviation
In terms of probability, we know that:
P(A1) = 10% = -0.1
P(A2) = 10% = 0.1
P(B│A1) = 8% of A1 = 0.08*-0.1 = -0.008
P(B│A2) = 8% of A2 = 0.08*0.1 = 0.008
P( A1 | B ) = P( A1 ) P( B | A1 )
P( A1 ) P( B | A1 ) + P( A2 ) P( B | A2 )
P( A1 | B ) = (-0.1)(-0.008) / [(-0.1)(-0.008) + (0.1)(0.008)]
P( A1 | B ) = 0.5
The return for 80% of share fund was greater than what value?
Event A1. 10% share fund loss.
Event A2. 80% share fund profit.
Event B. 8% standard deviation
In terms of probability, we know that:
P(A1) = 10% = -0.1
P(A2) = 80% = 0.8
P(B│A1) = 8% of A1 = 0.08*-0.1 = -0.008
P(B│A2) = 8% of A2 = 0.08*0.8 = 0.064
P( A1 | B ) = P( A1 ) P( B | A1 )
P( A1 ) P( B | A1 ) + P( A2 ) P( B | A2 )
P( A1 | B ) = (-0.1)(-0.008) / [(-0.1)(-0.008) + (0.8)(0.064)]
P( A1 | B ) = 0.015
The return of 80% share fund value was greater than the value attained at 10%
The return of 90% share fund was than what value?
Event A1. 10% share fund loss.
Event A2. 90% share fund profit.
Event B. 8% standard deviation
In terms of probability, we know that:
P(A1) = 10% = -0.1
P(A2) = 90% = 0.9
P(B│A1) = 8% of A1 = 0.08*-0.1 = -0.008
P(B│A2) = 8% of A2 = 0.08*0.9 = 0.072
P( A1 | B ) = P( A1 ) P( B | A1 )
P( A1 ) P( B | A1 ) + P( A2 ) P( B | A2 )
P( A1 | B ) = (-0.1)(-0.008) / [(-0.1)(-0.008) + (0.9)(0.072)]
P( A1 | B ) = 0.012
The returns of 90% share fund is cannot be compared to any other and therefore it is not less than any returns made.
Event A1. 10% share fund loss.
Event A2. 95% share fund profit.
Event B. 8% standard deviation
In terms of probability, we know that:
P(A1) = 10% = -0.1
P(A2) = 95% = 0.95
P(B│A1) = 8% of A1 = 0.08*-0.1 = -0.008
P(B│A2) = 8% of A2 = 0.08*0.95 = 0.076
P( A1 | B ) = P( A1 ) P( B | A1 )
P( A1 ) P( B | A1 ) + P( A2 ) P( B | A2 )
P( A1 | B ) = (-0.1)(-0.008) / [(-0.1)(-0.008) + (0.95)(0.076)]
P( A1 | B ) = 0.011
At 95% share funds return, the value 0.011 can be symmetrically distributed between mean values of 0.012 and 0.015.
Corruption and Police System in Latin America
Corruption and Police System in Latin America
Corruption and Police System in Latin America
Introduction
Corruption is a behaviour that is against the law and leads to lack of honesty to the individual, which may lead to mistrust of the other people. Corruption is rampant in many countries and more so in the Latin America, where the powerful people use corruptive methods to get what they want. The police department in Latin America is very corrupt, and the systems do not give the citizens of the country a chance to get justice for many issues. The main aim of this review is to address corruption issues and find their extent in Latin America by the use of the literature materials on the topics.
About Corruption and the Police systems in Latin America
Corruption is an act that is widespread in Latin America in various units, such as the offices, schools, government institutions, employment organizations, and in the political class. Corruption in the political class involves things like buying votes during elections and bribing voters to win political seats. Politicians can buy votes by giving out cash to the voters, giving the voters some presents, and promising the jobs and other things once they get in the political office. A study done in Argentina to find out the extent of buying votes by politicians showed that many low-income earners and the poor people receive various gifts and promises to vote for particular politicians. The other form of corruption with the politicians involves the clientellism in which the masses expect some loyalty after electing a certain politician. The effect is that the people cannot have control over their leader since they elected him because of the things he/she offered them. Corruption is also rampant in the police departments with most of them taking bribes from wrongdoers, who want to escape the law. The police investigations in Latin America are not to the required standards as some do not do a thorough job when investigating crimes.
The extent of corruption
Corruption is a menace in Latin America according to a survey carried out in 2013 that showed that about 27 percent of the police collect bribes from various clients. The survey was by the Global Corruption Barometer GSB that carries surveys on corruption activities in the world for comparisons. Topping the list of corruption in the Latin America were Bolivia and Mexico with 36 percent and 33 percent of bribery cases respectively. The Latin American police were leading in corruption cases, and many people said that the corruption in the police force was on the rise. According to the survey, a country, such as Mexico had 65000 reported cases of bribery, which is a very big number. Corruption in the political class is also widespread, which involves buying votes and bribing the voters before the actual date of the election. Police also assist criminals to form gangs that terrorise residents in many parts of Latin America. Some gangsters rob people while dressed as police officers, indicating that some police officers collaborated with the gangsters and led them their uniforms. Another survey by GSB showed that most of the crimes that happened in Latin America in 2013 showed that the police were the masterminds of most of the crimes.
Why corruption and the police systems matter in Latin America
Corruption is a vice that can kill development in a country if not controlled and the corrupt parties prosecuted in a court of law. When politicians embezzle the public funds, and the police take bribes from the people, development stagnates, as one cannot do anything without bribing the authorities. The other reason corruption may raise concern to the citizens is that it compromises democracy, especially when the governing body is corrupt. Corruption also causes lack of patriotism to the citizens in Latin America, as they cannot trust any of them.
Political scientists’ and their view on the corruption
Political scientists associate corruption with the historical issues, such as the military coup, and the political instability in Latin America. Many politicians also use corruption incidences of their opponents to get into power by arguing that they will eliminate corruption completely. However, once into power, they also become corrupt just like their predecessors. The political scientists also associate corruption with cultural norms of different countries in Latin America. In some countries, there is a big gap between the most powerful officers or leaders and the least powerful. It is very difficult to control corruption by the most powerful leaders because of the dire consequences a person may face. For example trying to expose corruption of a corrupt legislature may lead to retaliatory attacks by that legislature on the reporter.
Corruption versus socio-economic and the political changes in Latin America
Corruption, especially in the police unit and the other areas has an association with the changing trends in the political and the socio-economic changes. The rising poverty levels in Latin America lead to many people accepting bribes to vote for a particular person. Many people are advocating the accountability of their leaders, and there are various bodies to receive their grievances about the performance of officers. The other thing that is making corruption reduce is the application of the rule of law, which demands the prosecution of any officer regarding a corruption-related crime. Transparency is another change affecting corruption as the officers have to make any official matters public, disclosing the activities they undertake. There are some institutions mandated with the role of auditing all the public documents and transactions and revealing any anomalies in the financial documents. Another change that relates to corruption is the public opinion polls meant for checking the performance of any officer. One purpose of the public opinion polls is to rate different officers in relation to their performance.
Conclusion
Corruption is a serious problem in Latin America as some surveys show that the rate of bribery and political corruption is very high. Corruption is rampant and many people engage in it on a daily basis due to the economic hardships in some areas. Politician bribe voters by offering gifts and other promises once in the office. Political scientists view corruption as historical, which originated from such things as the military coup in the earlier years. Corruption has a big relationship with the current changes in the political and socio-economic changes in Latin America, which aims at reducing corruption to lower levels. However, there is a need for various researchers to come out and investigate corruption issues in the other countries.