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Nuclear energy production
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Introduction
Issues touching on energy production have always elicited mixed reactions from various groups of people. This, of course, depends on every group’s interests and how they will be affected by a certain aspect of energy production. It goes without saying that energy production has been barely sufficient to cater for the needs of all people. As much as there may not be an overarching shortage, the costs of energy in the present have gone so much high, especially as concerning the utilization of fossil fuels. This has prompted the various stakeholders to look or invest in alternative sources of energy. These include renewable sources of energy such as wind, solar, and other non conventional sources of energy such as nuclear. As much as varied governments have invested quite a considerable amount of money in the utilization of renewable sources of energy, the intake of such sources has been relatively slow. This is mainly because of unreliability of weather, vast expanses of land that are needed, not to mention the fact that such sources of energy may not be sufficient for large scale production of energy. This has, therefore, left many developed countries with the option of pursuing nonconventional sources of energy, especially nuclear energy.
The Unites States nuclear power industry incorporates 103 reactors situated in 31 states. These reactors produce energy amounting to 20 percent of the United States’ power. It is worth noting that production of electricity using nuclear power plants is beyond that from natural gas, oil, as well as hydropower sources and comes second only to power from coal (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 13). As much as the cost of constructing nuclear power plants is considerably high, consumers would pay less money for kilowatts per hour (kwh) than in the case of coal. The production of nuclear energy involves the splitting or fission of uranium atoms. Once uranium atoms split, a small proportion of their mass would be changed into energy while the remainder is modified into heat. When the fission occurs in the appropriate conditions, it will trigger chain reactions that tears or splits other atoms. The production of nuclear energy for commercial purposes maintains controlled chain reactions in the power plant (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 16). It also converts or modifies the heat that the split atoms releases into steam, which it uses to produce electricity. This energy that is generated from splitting atoms is much greater than energy produced through the combustion of similar amounts of matter. In essence, nuclear energy production requires a smaller amount of materials, less land and produces less waste than the generation of energy by burning fossil fuels.
However, this option has attracted an enormous outpouring of emotions pertaining to the appropriateness of depending on nuclear energy especially with regard to the environment. Questions, therefore, arise as to whether the production of nuclear energy is appropriate for the environment. Is the production of energy from nuclear plants the best option for the country? It is worth noting that the production of nuclear energy comes with enormous benefits, as well as a considerable number (and magnitude) of pros. It is, therefore, imperative that countries reevaluate these pros and cons and determine which is appropriate for them. In my opinion, the magnitude of disadvantages far outweighs the pros that this energy portends for the country.
First, it is noteworthy that the production of nuclear energy involves the use of non renewable resources (Bodansky, 68). Many people are concerned about the depletion of natural resources such as fossil resources, minerals, forests and others. Very few people acknowledge the fact that nuclear energy involves the use of a nonrenewable resource to produce the supposed clean energy. Uranium is extracted from the surface of the earth through chemical leaching or conventional mining techniques. Once it has been extracted from the ground, the uranium ore is taken to the processing plants where it is concentrated into an enriched fuel in the form of uranium oxide pellets. The enriched fuel is then sent to the nuclear power production plants. In essence, nuclear power production is founded on the use of nonrenewable resources.
On the same note, it is noteworthy that the mining and drilling of aluminum ores is detrimental to the environment (Bodansky, 68). Mining of any resources is always known to destroy the environment in varied ways. Large tracts of land may be cleared to pave the way for uranium mining not only in the exact places where the mining takes place, but also in adjacent pieces of land for the construction of the requisite infrastructure. These forests and other forms of vegetation are habitats for numerous animals and birds, in which case their destruction renders these animals homeless. In addition, mining comes with the disadvantage of polluting the environment in an extremely adverse way. Despite all-inclusive measures that are taken to dispose chemicals used in mining to nearby rivers, an enormous amount of these chemicals leaks into the land, thereby altering the land’s chemical composition. These chemicals are also toxic, in which case they render the soil unsuitable for the growth of plants. Even in cases where the chemicals are directed to the rivers without any leakage, there is the pollution of water bodies, which results in death of aquatic life. Chemicals such as cyanide, mercury, arsenic, methyl mercury and sulfuric acid are used in varied mining stages. These chemicals have adverse results on water bodies and the constituent aquatic life. This, therefore, pokes holes on the notion that the production of nuclear energy is entirely clean or pollution free.
Apart from the mining process, it is entirely inappropriate to insinuate that the production of nuclear energy does not produce greenhouse gases especially carbon dioxide (Bodansky, 89). Of course, it is understood that nuclear energy has no carbon emissions. However, there is still a high amount of carbon emissions produced in the various processes involved such as enriching process, mining, its disposal, final plant decommissioning, as well as its conversion to nuclear fuel (Fergusson, 45). However, the amount of carbon dioxide that the secondary processes produce mainly depends on the Uranium enrichment method that is used, as well as the source of electricity that is used in the enrichment process. Either way, the processes involved in the production of nuclear energy have the potential of producing greenhouse emissions.
One of the key or principal concerns pertaining to the production of nuclear energy has to do with the disposal of its waste products (Bodansky, 57). Of course, the production of nuclear energy produces less waste material than other sources of energy such as fossil fuels. Research shows that one uranium atom incorporates energy that is millions of times more than the energy held by fossil fuels. In essence, there is always less waste material produced in the generation of nuclear energy than in other processes (OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, 34). However, the dangerous nature of these waste materials cannot be ignored. It is worth noting that various methods of disposing these materials have been devised. The production or generation of nuclear energy results in the creation of radioactive waste materials that cannot be disposed off in the conventional methods or even recycled, at least not according to the current technologies. These waste materials come with varying degrees of radioactivity with the most dangerous category of waste materials being the spent nuclear fuel rods (OECD Nuclear Energy Agency, 22). The low-level radioactive waste materials include the radiation contaminated materials, as well as uranium tailings. Unfortunately, there is no technology in these days that allow for the proper disposal of waste, in which case it is piling up in the nuclear facilities, in the country.
Currently, the radioactive waste materials are stored in the nuclear plants within multiple barriers. The geologic disposal system is conceived as incorporating extra barriers for isolating the waste, as well as sealing pathways through which the contaminants are likely to reach the environment (Hadjilambrinos, 47). These waste materials are first placed in titanium or copper containers that can withstand corrosion for a long time then stored in the repositories. Unfortunately, there is no conclusive research as to the ability of these repositories to contain the radioactive materials until they have totally lost their radioactive nature and attained safe levels of the same. It is worth noting that while some radioactive waste materials take a few decades to become safe, most of the waste takes thousands of years to lose their radioactive nature. Even when they do, research has shown that there is no safe level of radiation (Hadjilambrinos, 67). In quite a large number of cases, the spent fuel rods in United States’ nuclear reactors are put into or submerged into storage pools that incorporate circulating water to cool them off. It is noteworthy that these storage pools do not have steel containment structures protecting them, irrespective of the fact that the pools contain 5-10 times more radioactivity than reactors. It is obviously difficult to rule out the possibility of accidents or mechanical failures in these containers (Goldberg, 78). Studies show that in case the cooling system failed, for example, in cases where the water pumps are unable to pump water through, the spent fuel would be likely to get as hot and unsafe as the fuel incorporated in the reactors. The water would then heat in less than 24 hours, leading to the exposure of fuel rods to air. The consequences would be severe and dangerous and may include the occurrence of a self-propagating zirconium fire, as well as an enormous production of radioactive isotopes.
In addition, there have existed suggestions that the radioactive waste material should be buried in underground stores where they would remain undisturbed for eons on end until they are safe (Goldberg, 45). In fact, the Yucca Mountain had been identified as the best place for this method of storage. On the other hand, there have been suggestions that the waste materials should be disposed off in space using rockets or by burying it under ice caps. However, questions remain as to the safety of such methods of storage. It goes without saying that the magnitude of dangerous effects that the explosion of such a rocket would have on both plants and animals would be enormous (Gudorf and Hutchinson, 113). As much as burying the radioactive waste materials may appear as a viable option, questions exist as to how such storage facilities would be maintained especially in the long run. In addition, such storage methods would produce severe consequences if natural catastrophes such as earthquakes occur in the areas (Gudorf and Huchingson, 166). In addition, there exists the danger of terrorist attacks targeting nuclear reactors. The fears became real after it was discovered that, the masterminds of the September 11 attacks were also planning to target one of the United States’ nuclear reactors. The Japanese nuclear crisis has shown just how devastating such accidents, whether natural or manmade, could be not only to the environment but also to the plants and animals.
Lastly, there are concerns as to the amounts of water that nuclear reactors consume so as to cool off. Nuclear reactors not only consume large amounts of water but also release steam that eliminates some aquatic life. This is especially when there are radioactive elements in such water (Richard and Routley, 34).
In conclusion, nuclear energy has lately been propagated as the safest and most appropriate for the environment. This is because of the notion that it produces clean energy. However, it noteworthy that its production involves the destruction of the environment through mining, as well as the use of chemicals that eliminate aquatic life once they leak into the water bodies. Moreover, there are issues pertaining to the storage or disposal of radioactive waste materials, which pose enormous threats to both the current and future generations. The possibility of accidents in such cases would affect the world in an unchangeable manner. In my opinion, the cons of producing nuclear energy far outweigh the advantages especially as far as the environment is concerned.
Works cited
Gudorf, Christine E. and Huchingson, James E. (2010-04-19). Boundaries: A Casebook in Environmental Ethics. Georgetown: Georgetown University Press. 2010. Print
Richard and Val Routley. “Nuclear Power: Some Ethical and Social Dimensions.” Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Littlefield, 1982. Print
Goldberg, Jonah. “Dead and Buried.” National Review, 2002, Print
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Nuclear Energy: Electricity from Nuclear Energy. Web 2012 retrieved 21st June 2012 from HYPERLINK “http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/nuclear.html” http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-and-you/affect/nuclear.html
Hadjilambrinos, Constantine. “Ethical Imperatives and High-Level Radioactive Waste Policy An Egalitarian Response to Utilitarian Analysis.” Environmental Ethics. 2000. Print
OECD Nuclear Energy Agency. Risks and Benefits of Nuclear Energy. New York: OECD Publishing, 2007. Print
Ferguson, Charles D. Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks. New York: Council on Foreign Relations, 2007. Print
Bodansky, David. Nuclear Energy: Principles, Practices, and Prospects. New York: Springer, 2004. Print
History of digital camera
Abstract
Photography as we know it has a rich history that in the years has combined various developments and technologies to come up with the digital camera that we have now. Many photographers do not realize the history behind the camera, the developments they have undergone and the techniques that they use when they take pictures. Cameras have undergone many changes and developments since the idea of photography became public knowledge in 1839. Thus the idea of photography and cameras came up a long time ago and has been with us through the developments and technologies leading to the sleek and stylish digital cameras that are available now. Photography was developed in two phases whereby there was the chemical and optical process. Technology has changed cameras from the bulky apparatus that was used ages ago to the small gadgets that we have today.
Keywords: photography, digital camera, technology, chemical, optical.
History of digital camera.
The name photography was made up by John Herschel in 1839. By this time, the idea of photography was public knowledge and even the local people knew about it. Photography was developed in chemical and optical phases. The optical process which is the dark room as it is commonly known has been around for about 400 years. This shows how photography has a rich history. The chemical process however developed more slowly even though scientists had ideas of how to change colors on pieces of paper. It took various kinds of developers to realize that light as we know it is related to exposure. Chemical developments were slow but steady. Robert Boyle discovered that silver chloride became dark when exposed to light even though he first though it was because of the air. Other discoveries were by Angelo where he realized that powdered silver nitrate turned black under sunlight. Other discovered liquids that turned color when exposed to sunlight for some time. The great discovery came when Niepce after 8 hours was able to capture a picture exposed to light successfully (Randy 2008).
After the passing of Niepce, back in 1829, another developer inherited his work and was able to reduce the 8 hours Niepce used to develop a picture to half an hour. He was known as Louis and he used salt to make the images he took permanent. At this time many people began to develop their own pictures even though there were many protests that photography was the work of the devil. At this time picture taking was very expensive and so not very many people took pictures and also for one to take a copy of the same picture, he had to use two cameras. After the development of calotype process, more copies of pictures could be made because it utilized copies. This was invented by William Talbot in 1839 where he wanted to bring development to everybody instead of those who could afford it. Through this process, photographers were able to make multiple copies of their pictures. William used the Lacock Abbey as the very first negative paper in existence in 1835.
Over the next ten years, photo studios popped up everywhere in Europe. In the 1850s, Frederick Archer introduced the Collodion process that reduced the exposure time to 2 to 4 seconds. This way pictures would be produced at a faster rate. This process was cheaper and took less time. During the Collodion process, the plate would be still wert when it went through its coating, exposure and development. The development process required many equipment and space. It also required finances and so not everybody could get access to developing prints. In n 1872, Richard Manddox began using gelatin for the photographic plates. Previously, glass was used and without the glass, dry plate process was developed. This made the development process quicker and attainable for any level photographer. By the year 1884, the flexible film was introduced by George Eastman and he later developed the box camera. The box camera became the prototype where every camera has been developed.
Ideas from the box camera led to the point and shoot cameras used in the 1980s and 90s. These simple but effective cameras lead to the development of the disposable cameras and then digital camera technology. Digital photography development came up in 1959 with the charge-coupled device (CCD) which was invented by Willard Boyle and George Smith. Fairchild semiconductor produced the first CCD chip in 1973. Bryce Bayer- from Eastman- Kodak was able to develop color sensors for the CCD chip back in 1975. Kodak introduced the first mega pixel sensor in 1986. Kodak has later come up with developments and inventions that have brought about the digital camera revolution. Other makers of point-and-shoot cameras have also come up with developments in technology that are used today. One of these camera makers are canon.
Developments in technology have brought about what we know now as the modern digital camera. It is only a matter of time before new developments overshadows the very beginning of the roots of photography. Kodak released the first professional digital camera system (DCS) for the photojournalists. This was the Nikon F-3 that had a 1.3 megapixel sensor. The first digital cameras for the consumer level were from Kodak and these were the apple Quicktake 100 camera and the Kodak DC40 camera. These were able to be connected to a computer through a serial cable and one could print, upload or save the pictures from the computer (Mary 2010).
Digital cameras enjoy many advantages compared to film cameras. Although the cost of digital cameras is more than that of film cameras, it is basically cheaper in the long run because there are no processing and ongoing film costs. It is possible to view the pictures one has shot immediately and you can delete or recapture again instantly. Problems that may come with exposure, lighting, composition and sharpness are detected right on the spot and adjustments can be made while the subject is still present. This gives one a great pleasure in taking pictures and encourages one to take more pictures. Because of the instant feedback of digital cameras, nature photographers learn quicker and have great experiences and fun in the process. Also nature instructors can easily teach their students to get better images more rapidly.
Digital cameras are also easier to travel with compared to the film ones. This is because for example like in airports, the x-ray machines can damage film but they cannot do any damage to the digital cameras. Furthermore for the film cameras, one has to carry a lot of films so as to accommodate many pictures whereas the digital cameras has storage media with various sizes of storage and all one needs is the memory stick to store the pictures. When the media becomes full, one can download the pictures to a computer or another storage media. So with digital cameras photographers do not have to carry hundreds of rolls of film on an overseas trip (John 2007).
Film cameras are restricted to only 36 exposures whereas the digital cameras only need memory card and battery-power consumption. With many digital cameras, one can take more than 100 pictures at a go without the need to download the pictures to another storage drive or computer. Digital cameras also convert digital files directly. For the film cameras, one needs to scan the pictures first and the digitalize them. To purchase a good film scanner is very expensive and also the process of digitalizing takes a lot of time. Digital camera memory cards are cheap to purchase and the beauty of it all is that they can be used again and again and again. It is also quite difficult to find E-6 slide film processing that is used to process films. Memory cards do not require any processing you just download the pictures to a printer or a computer. This is done by the use of a communications cable called serial cable or a card reader.
With digital cameras, one can shoot pictures, review, correct and reshoot images at ease. One can review the image shot and then one is able to know if they got the right shot or they will need to reshoot it immediately. For example in underwater photographing, digital cameras are ideal because one can tell there and then if they got the right shot. Film cameras are however not ideal because the film has to be processed first so as to tell if the y got the right shot. Even if the film is processed during the dive trip, they risk the chance of poor processing. Digital cameras have a small amount of digital noise which can be managed with photo-editing software. However film cameras have a lot of grain structure that is visible if the picture is enlarged (Jack 2005).
Digital cameras are able to use higher ISO speeds and this translates to greater depth of field, less usage of flash power and thus they have the ability to shoot pictures in low light levels. Digital cameras are also very sensitive to light and this combined with their high ISO speeds can be able to shoot clear still pictures on deep sea diving and in low light levels. The ISO speed of digital cameras can be changed from one shot to another. Thus it is easy to adjust the pictures being shot. Film cameras however have the same ISO speed from image to image. The white balance on a digital camera allows one to adjust the image’s color as one switches the depth and to the available light to flash. Film images can easily be damaged through scratching and mishandling whereas digital images can be stored in CD or DVD that can last many years. Images on a digital camera can be seen on a television screen through the communications cable. Digital cameras can also be adjusted for distance so that one can shoot an image far away.
Disadvantages of digital cameras include the initial cost of investing in digital equipment. Digital cameras are very expensive and also the equipment for storage and computers that are needed are also expensive. Digital cameras are also very fragile than the film cameras. They tend to get damaged easily if not properly taken care of. They are mostly made of plastic shell that can be damaged when dropped or when pressure is applied. Digital cameras tend to use a lot of power and so they drain batteries faster than the film cameras. Thus the cost of batteries is high when it comes to digital cameras. Digital cameras also have a delay from when the shutter release is pressed to when it takes the picture. Thus one might get a shot of the image that they did not want. Digital cameras have a restricted megapixel so when trying to blow up an image to higher resolution it may become blurry (Dale 2007)
Digital cameras have a rich history and they have come a long way from the box cameras to the film cameras. They have various advantages which out ways their disadvantages and thus are a good investment. They produce great image quality and clarity. The fact that one can upload pictures from these cameras and share on the internet is an added advantage.
References
Dale, A. (2007). Digital overdrive: communications & multimedia technology 2011. Canada: Burlington press.
Jack, D. (2005). Master guide for underwater Digital Photography. New York: Amherst Media, Inc press
John, G. (2007). Digital nature photography: the art and the science. USA: Library of congress press
Mary, B. (2010). History of the Digital Camera. USA: About.com article
Randy, O. (2008). Light and video microscopy. USA: Library of congress press.
history of cotton in United States
History of Cotton in United States
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Date In 1791, U.S. cotton generation was little, at just 780,000 kilograms. A few variables added to the development of the cotton business in the U.S.: the expanding British demand; high demand from turning industry, weaving, and steam power; modest area; and a slave work power. The cotton gin, created in 1793 by Eli Whitney, gigantically developed the American cotton industry, which was already restricted by the rate of manual expulsion of seeds from the fiber, and helped cotton to surpass tobacco as the essential money product of the South. By 1801 the yearly generation of cotton had arrived at more than 22 million kilograms, and by the early 1830s the United States created most of the world’s cotton. Cotton likewise surpassed the estimation of all other United States fares consolidated. The requirement for prolific area helpful for its development lead to the extension of servitude in the United States and an early nineteenth century area surge known as Alabama Fever.
Local Americans were watched developing cotton by the Coronado campaign in the early 1550s. This additionally introduced slave exchange to meet the developing requirement for work to develop cotton, a work escalated product and a money harvest of colossal financial worth. Furthermore in the American South a whole human advancement was based the “King Cotton”. As the superior yield, the southern piece of United States succeeded because of its subjection subordinate economy. Through the hundreds of years cotton turned into a staple yield in American horticulture. The cotton cultivating additionally sponsored in the nation by U.S. government, as an exchange arrangement, particularly to the “corporate agribusiness” just about destroyed the economy of individuals in numerous immature nations, for example, Mali and numerous other creating nations (in perspective of low benefits in the light of solid rivalry from the United States the specialists could barely bring home the bacon to make due with cotton deals.
Development of cotton exploiting slaves brought immense benefits to the managers of extensive ranches, making them a portion of the wealthiest men in the U.S. preceding the Civil War. In the non-slave-owning states, cultivates infrequently developed bigger than what could be developed by one family because of lack of homestead laborers. In the slave states, managers of homesteads could purchase numerous slaves and subsequently develop vast zones of area. By the 1840s, slaves made up half of the number of inhabitants in the principle cotton states: Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Slaves were the most vital resource in cotton development, and their deal brought benefits to slave owners outside of cotton-developing ranges. Hence, the cotton industry contributed essentially to the Southern high society’s backing of subjection.
Students of history accept that cotton was brought into the United States by outsiders. While it was recorded in Florida in 1566 and in Jamestown, Virginia in 1627, it is accepted that cotton has been planted and refined in the United States following 1641. Mansion holders brought mass supplies of work from Africa and the Caribbean and Mexico to homestead the fields amid cotton harvests.
The ascent of “King Cotton” as the characterizing gimmick of southern life revitalized subjection. The guarantee of cotton benefits supported a terrific climb in the direct importation of African slaves in the years prior to the trans-Atlantic exchange was made unlawful in 1808. 300,000 new slaves landed in the United States from 1797 to 1818, a number equivalent to the whole slave importation of the frontier period. After 1818, the inward slave exchange constrained African Americans from the fringe states and Chesapeake into the new cotton cinch, which eventually extended from heartland Georgia to eastern Texas. Indeed, more than a large portion of the Americans who moved to the Southwest after 1817 were oppressed blacks.
References
HYPERLINK “http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/why-was-cotton-king/” t “_blank” http://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/why-was-cotton-king/
HYPERLINK “http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/161/cotton-in-a-global-economy-mississippi-1800-1860” t “_blank” http://mshistorynow.mdah.state.ms.us/articles/161/cotton-in-a-global-economy-mississippi-1800-1860
HYPERLINK “http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3000.html” t “_blank” http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h3000.html
HYPERLINK “http://newdeal.feri.org/asn/asn00.htm” t “_blank” http://newdeal.feri.org/asn/asn00.htm