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History of Birth of Control
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History of Birth Control
Inadequate knowledge on issues on sexuality led to the fact that women were ignored on such issues in the US and even across the globe. It has been difficult, over the decades, to distinguish between sex and child bearing factors. Sex matters were difficult to analyze except when the women subordination was acknowledged. In essence, even historical traditions and philosophies cannot adequately explain issues of sexuality. In nomadic communities, for example, small families were valued due to frequent movements of such families in search of pasture for their animals. Several human right groups and individuals raised various concerns on the need to develop birth control method in order to protect and uphold the integrity, morality and dignity of women (Bollough 28). This led to the development of social justice movements, which received sharp criticisms from the clerics. The social justice movements developed ideologies and aspirations which triggered political conflicts.
As explored by Gordon (25) and Critchlaw (15) the birth control movement developed through four stages, with defined ideologies in each stage. The first stage, according to Gordon, was “voluntary motherhood”. This was advocated for by the feminists in the mid 19th century. It basically laid emphasis on liberty, freedom of choice and the autonomy of women. It widely addressed the plight of women on issues of subordination and sexuality.
The second stage was between 1910-1920. This was the stage of “birth control”. This stage introduced a totally different ideology of birth control. It rose beyond the first stage of radical social justice movements by advocating for the advance cross cutting issues of gender transformation and empowerment of the female sex. This term has since been accepted and used worldwide. This stage was also characterized by the intense campaign of the birth control as a fundamental issue which must not be ignored.
The third stage was between 1920-1970. This was the stage of “planned parenthood”. According to Gordon (25) this stage was majorly characterized by the transition from the radical social justice movement ideologies to that of the liberal reform movement ideologies. There was an intense advocacy for the choice and liberty of the parenthood planning methods. This stage was critical in the sense that it triggered political conflicts which, in essence, led to the legitimization of contraception, mostly in the United States.
The fourth stage, as discussed by Gordon (27) was that of “reproductive rights”. It developed through the 1980s into the modern times. This stage was majorly concerned with the issues of the preservation of the women and children life. This stage also received a major boost to its campaign in the 1990s. During this period, a large Christian rights group made a vicious attack on the issues of abortion. This led to the formulation of the “right to life” policy and slogan which was, in essence, a major boost in this fourth stage (Bollough 44).
In conclusion, since the social justice movement was about two centuries ago, birth control experienced a lot of social and religious stigma across the nations of the world (Gordon 29). Critical and crucial facts about birth control were distorted. As discussed by to Critchlaw (22) the United States birth control advocates served jail terms for allegedly violating laws. However, modern birth control movements have included aspects such as women empowerment as well as social and economic justice and liberty. By extension, the freedom of expression, speech and even democracy have been enhanced worldwide.
Works cited
Gordon, Linda. The Moral Property of Women: a history of birth control politics. USA: Grossman Publishers, Penguin Books, 2002. Print.
Bollough, Vern. The Encyclopedia of birth control. California: ABC-CLIO, 2001. Print.
Critchlaw, D. T. The politics of abortion and birth control in historical perspective. Pennsylvania: The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1996. Print.
The House on A Mango Street
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The House on A Mango Street
The novel which is dedicated to women in then society majors its arguments based on feminism, where Esperanza discovers the value of women and what people actually ignore about the roles played by women in our lives. After going through the novel, I noted that the author was trying to explain to readers how most of the women in our society are limited to their own freedom, and that their deeds are not regarded as important over what men do. Gender is one of the main themes in the novel, where Esperanza explains her struggle from running away from her home, just to be away from all the injustices which were going around her place (Doyle, 30). Acts of diminishing the power of women, looking down upon the roles delegated to women and violence in marriages were some of the injustices which were evident in the novel, where women fought for their own peace and freedom of choice. In this paper, I will discuss on the importance of female role models to Chicana women and how cases of abusive marriages were increasing in the society that Esperanza lived.
Female role models in the novel are seen to act or do things their own way, without considering other people’s feelings or decisions towards certain things. According to the rites of passage of the Chicana women, every woman should wear heels during a certain stage in her life, to symbolize passage of the rite. Female leaders in this case take the role of ensuring the every lady has passed through that action, an act which is somehow opposed by some of the women. To quote the novel, the author says; “presented with a lesson on what it means to be a grown-up woman in America contemporary patriarchal society, the girls decide to cast away their high-heeled shoes” (Cisneros, 101). The statement means that some of the practices which were done in the name of passage of rites were not pleasing to every person subjected to them, and it was the work of their role models to ensure that this mentality dies completely. In this case, the female role models in the novel failed to do their work in guiding other ladies according to what and individual wants, and decided to follow the traditional way of doing their roles.
Capitalism is also linked to how role models do their work as the author emphasis on saying that the people in that society are blinded by the fact that a woman should be domesticated while the husband looks for satisfaction of special needs. “Traditional female bildungsroman has played a direct role in endorsing and upholding the cult of domesticity for women and the image of a woman as the angel in the house” (Cisneros, 97), is a quote which clearly shows that female role models do less or nothing in changing the traditional perspectives and switching to new formalities which can help both men and women. Female role models should always be ready to fight for the rights of fellow men, and offer them a go through towards achievement of certain goals and encouraging them to act according to what they are comfortable at. Female role models in this community have failed to uphold change towards such old formalities, where they affect generations due to deep belief in old traditions.
All the women in Chicano community, according to the author, are subjected to oppression and sexual abuse in their marriage relationships except Esperanza. Sally, one of the key victims in domestic and sexual abuse goes through a hard life from being beaten by her father up to being married to a man who controlled her entire life. By quoting the novel, sally’s “father attempts to control her sexuality cause her to exchange one repressive patriarchal prison for another” (Cisneros, 6), meaning that the girl fights for her safety severally when her father attempts to beat her, then ends up being forced into a marriage which she is still beaten and controlled. Men from Chicano community are seen to care less about the rights and welfare of women, where most of them indulge in practices of injustices such as beating up their wives.
Basing our argument from statements in the novel, the author says; “other instances of male violence in the collection-Rafaela’s imprisonment, sally’s beatings, and the details of Minerva’s life”, confirms that there was a constant behavior of partners abusing one another in a relationship, and that people of Chicano had gotten much comfortable with the fact the women were subjects of men (Doyle, 7). Sally was repeatedly beaten up by her father, and then later got herself into a marriage which she still got abused and nothing was done against the act. Playing along with such suffering meant that Sally was certain that no action could be done against such acts, and that people in the community had generalized the idea whereby such acts looked normal to them. Such incidences confirm that people of Chicano were against the rights of women, and that men used their own power to make sure that women did what they felt like forcing them to do.
It is unfortunate that no one could speak for innocent people like Sally, as the parents, leaders, role models and the women themselves had gotten comfortable with the fact the traditions were meant to be kept no matter what effect they cause to the society (Bloom, 35). Lastly, the novel clearly shows how most of the communities in the world are reluctant in upholding the rights of women in the society, and instead the people in charge of ensuring that such rights are taken seriously are now in the frontline in oppressing women. In this paper, several evidences showing how female role models failed in fighting for their fellow females are explained, where the author uses the example of Esperanza to show how some women get lucky in growing up in a community where no justice is done for women of her age. Sally is also used as an example in the novel to show how women are abused silently in our societies. It is time for women to stand and speak for their rights to avoid such brutality by the other gender.Works Cited
Bloom, Harold, ed. Sandra Cisneros’s The House on Mango Street. Infobase Publishing, 2010: 34-56
Cisneros, Sandra. The House on Mango Street. 1984: 1-103
Doyle, Jacqueline. “More Room of Her Own: Sandra Cisneros’s The House on Mango Street.” Melus. 1994: 5-35.
History Of American Pharmacists Association (Apha) Code Of Ethics And Conduct
History Of American Pharmacists Association (Apha) Code Of Ethics And Conduct
Developer(S)
The code of ethics that is followed by APhA as a professional body was formulated by professionals in the pharmacy industry to provide guidance in the sensitive health issues that they encountered. Initially the code was developed by the Pharmaceutical Association in 1852 which was later transformed into the American Pharmacists Association. Prior to the development of the regulatory element that the code introduced into the industry, there were several loopholes in the manner in which pharmacists handled their patients. The developers of the code were among the concerned professionals who found it wise to introduce some normalcy in their practice and responsibility over the patients.
Place of Origin
Apparently, the APhA code of Ethics was developed in the United States within the context of solving an American problem that faced the industry. However, the code did not propose certain discriminatory treatment of individuals who sought pharmacy assistance. Philadelphia hosted the inception convention that established the association that developed the code. It was later possible to relocate the headquarters to Washing DC in 1934 after the procurement of the piece of land on which it is situated in National Mall (APhA, 2011).
Evolution of the APhA Code of Conduct
There are many changes that were necessary to be incorporated into the code that became operational after the inception of the Pharmaceutical Association in 1852. As medical care advanced to embrace an increased demand, the code of ethics had to be modified to be more receptive to the emerging changes (McCarthy and Schfermeyer, 2004). Perhaps the most striking feature of the code is that it is the only code that regulates the conduct of professional pharmacists for the entire period of time since its development. It is therefore expected that the changes witnessed in the profession, human civilization and the environment of practice must have changed the face of the presenting challenges that the 19th Century profession had. Some of the changes include depicting this evolution include the following among many others;
The 1852 version had an allowance of errors in making prescription due to the paternalist attitude applied in the phrasing of the code (APhA, 1865)
The version of the document a century later (1952) had a list of the responsibilities that the pharmacists have in their practice (APhA, 1952) although much changes were introduced later to constitute the modern version
The 1969 version had been constricted to highlight major pharmacy issues of ethical conduct concerns. It also had gender neutrality in its phrasing
1996 version of the code had more specific responsibilities (APhA, 1995)
Enforcement of Professional Codes of Ethics or Codes of Conduct
Enforcement
APhA code of ethics is enforced by various stakeholders in the health care system, particularly pharmacy affiliate professional bodies in the US as well as across the world. It is also enforced and administered through various government agencies that recognize the code of conduct as a tool for the protection of public health. Professional bodies that license and accredit pharmacists are important players in the enforcement of the code regulations.
Processes/Procedures Used to Enforce and Resolve Disputes or Violations
The most appropriate process of ensuring that the profession remains guided by the code is the requirement of appropriate accreditation of practitioners in the industry by the recognized pharmacy body or board. Procedures of enforcement include supervision and monitoring of the industry players to ensure compliance. There are elaborate methods of handling disputed operations in the industry with fines and other sanctions being indicated by the various pharmacy bodies under the umbrella leadership of APhA (McCarthy and Schfermeyer, 2004). In cases where there are grave concerns of violation of the code of conduct, stern punitive measures within the profession may also be considered such as excommunication or prosecution before the law which highly considers laid out regulations of the code.
Consequences of Violations
Violation of the code of conduct may attract a range of punitive disciplinary actions which vary from warnings, fines, sanctions, excommunication to prosecution. In terms of prosecution guidance that the state has over the control of pharmaceutical industry, the code becomes a very important policy area of consideration in decision making. Legal considerations in dealing with the errant behavior of pharmacists caught in the violation of the professional code of conduct are heavily dependent on the laid down provisions of the code. It therefore implies that there several consequences from within and outside the industry, which can end up in the termination of the career of professional pharmacists (McCarthy and Schfermeyer, 2004).
References
APhA. (1865)” Code of Ethics of the American Pharmaceutical Association. In Proceedings of the National Pharmaceutical Convention, Held at Philadelphia, October 6th, 1852 (2nd ed., unaltered, pp. 24–26),” Philadelphia, PA: Merrihew and Son, Printer.
APhA. (1952) “Code of Ethics of the American Pharmaceutical Association,” Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association, 13(10):721–723.
APhA. (1995) “Code of ethics for pharmacists. American Pharmaceutical Association. American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 52:2131.
APhA. (2011) “The American Pharmacists Association: A short History,” Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “http://www.pharmacist.com/Content/NavigationMenu3/AboutAPha/History/APhA_History.htm” http://www.pharmacist.com/Content/NavigationMenu3/AboutAPha/History/APhA_History.htm
McCarthy, R. L. & Schfermeyer, K. W. (2004) Introduction to health care delivery: a primer for pharmacists. Jones & Barlett Learning