Recent orders
The History of Terrorism and Special Forces
The History of Terrorism and Special Forces
Terrorism
Terrorism can be defined as a strategic and deliberate use of violence and force towards an identified target in order to disrupt the political atmosphere (Mitchell, 2010). On many occasions I discovered that threats are commonly used by the terrorists to achieve their goal of influencing political decisions. These deeds of terror I believe have no noble interest in them since they lead to hasty attacks and killings. The United States of America has encountered several terrorist attacks throughout its history. The country deployed Special Forces during attacks to counter the adversities associated with terrorism. An extensive investigation on terrorism has to be carried out especially on the historical background of the US in order to gather a broader perspective about terrorists’ intentions. I strongly believe the research will assist government agencies and legal systems to make timely decisions on how to tackle the deadly threats.
The historical background on terrorism dates back to the French revolution (Mitchell, 2010). For the last ten years, however, a dramatic increase in this barbaric act has been observed. To pursue their political agenda they use hijacking, murdering, kidnapping and bombing. Armstrong indicated that modern suicide terror was first noted at an American embassy in Lebanon in 1983 near Beirut (Simpson & Robert, 2004). The group behind the attack was known as Hezbollah, meaning an army of God. The group later led another attack against the French multinational force and the Marine headquarters resulting in the death of 300 people (Bernstein, 2002). The terror attack made western forces to leave Lebanon. A suicide terror attack is presumed to be the most devastating form of terrorism. The terrorists usually use religion to justify their awful acts though the assaults are politically motivated.
Hezbollah as I noted uses suicide terror attacks against Israel as a retaliatory apparatus. For example, after their secretary general Abas Musavi was assassinated by Israeli military personnel in 1992, the Hezbollah bombed an Israeli embassy stationed in Buenos Ares (Mann, 2004). Twenty-nine people died while two hundred and fifty people were seriously injured. I also noted that whenever a terror group achieved a political goal their terror activities were observed to reduce. This was a clear indication that the perpetrators were politically motivated rather than being religiously influenced. Islam is also the most dominant religion in the Middle East and terrorists use this opportunity to their advantage. The objective of publicizing their course is achieved through the use of a religious approach and tone. Due to the common culture and religion of their environment, the method of communicating turns out to be very effective. I believe Scholars were blinded into believing that terrorism was motivated by religion (Simpson, 2004). This could have been as a result of the famous picture of Arab Muslims shouting “God is great” in the Middle East, especially in the middle of bloody terror attacks.
Armstrong, a famous political scholar, argues that the new form of terrorism could be because of the collapsing of the Soviet Union (Simpson & Robert, 2004). The fall marked the end of colonial stations in most sections of the Middle East. An anti -colonial terrorism vacuum, however, was created; this led to suicide terror attacks based on religion. Most of the terrorist attacks occurring across the world are religious-based. Different types of religion try to eliminate others so that they can control the world region. Anti-imperialism is the major issue causing terror attacks in the Middle East. Their perception is that western culture is corrupt suppressive and wants a government that will preserve their culture. Citizens of imperialized countries feel oppressed; this makes them to seek ways of eliminating imperialism. One of the ways that has been used throughout the human history is terrorism.
The Special Forces
America uses military power to curb terrorism. Military power is made up of the armed force that protects the citizens from external aggression. Unique strategies have been set by the military forces to tackle the problem of terrorism (Bush, 2011). First a philosophy establishing the need to protect the lives of civilians known as a counterinsurgency or (COIN) was implemented. Others include the use of drones, covert operations and investigative work. American air strikes have been curtailed to reduce the number of innocent casualties. The Special Forces unit is a branch of the army given the mega task of handling terrorism threats. The unit was initially formed to boost psychological warfare on May 1952 (Bush, 2011). In 1954 its existence was disclosed to the public. Over the years various lethal and highly trained elite units have been developed from the unit for example the delta force, green berets, airborne division and the rangers (Bernstein, 2002). The women and men in the units are highly trained and their main duty is to free the oppressed and ensure there is maximum safety. The Special Forces roles evolved from normal combat to counter terrorism roles (Mitchell, 2010).
The Special Forces have five crucial missions: direct action, foreign internal defense, counter- terrorism, special reconnaissance and finally the most important and the original mission is the unconventional warfare (Mitchell, 2010). They have the capability to be virtually anywhere where the environment is very hostile and in a major crisis. Special Forces have other duties such as manhunts, security assistance, peacekeeping, hostage rescue, counter- proliferation, counter-narcotics, information operations, security assistance, psychological operations and humanitarian assistance (Simpson, 2004). The soldiers learn foreign languages and culture. They are also experts especially in matters involving organizing surrogate fighters and foreign armies.
The unit traces its history way back to the World War 2 involving the strategic services (Mitchell, 2010). The OSS was developed to collect intelligence and carry out missions behind enemy lines in Burma and Europe. The team has assisted in ousting the Taliban movement in Afghanistan, which was a move to combat terrorism globally. The group is known to accomplish missions that are perceived to be almost impossible. For example, in northern Iraq the squad cleared the whole western desert that was full of scud missiles (Bernstein, 2002). They are uniquely identified as the “quiet professionals” and are deployed all over the world showcasing their expertise in unconventional warfare. Their motto is to” free the oppressed” citizens.
The severity of terrorism activities as I have observed has increased alarmingly for the past few years and incidences experienced are more violent as compared to recent years. The terror groups have also advanced by having branches in different countries (Mann, 2004). I believe the guerilla tactic is the most common form of warfare that the terrorists practice since they cannot match the sophisticated conventional Special Forces capabilities. Counter terrorism has become the biggest concern among countries all over the world since terrorism is inevitable and very secretive (Mann, 2004).
New terror groups are emerging everywhere in the world; therefore, most countries have designated special units to handle the threats. They range from security agencies to elite tactical units. They are involved in responsive operations and immediate response to ongoing attacks (Simpson, 2004). In the USA most operations to curb terrorism are at the tactical stage and are conducted by the either the intelligence agencies or the national law enforcing agencies. These include the FBI and the CIA, agencies that gather classified information about the intentions of the terrorists in order to avert terrorist threats.
Attaining reliable secret intelligence I believe is very vital for the both the intelligence agencies and the Special Forces since terrorists are very secretive and hide in remote geographical locations. Although secret intelligence is very important, at times it can be very costly and unreliable. For instance some intelligence was gathered claiming that Iraq had weapons of mass destruction and was secretly funding terror groups. The information was false and because of that the USA is at war with Iraq (Bernstein, 2002). This in my view has resulted to using up billions of tax payers’ money in funding the war and massive loss of lives.
The head of the Al-Qaida group Osama bin laden was totally against imperialism. He demanded that the USA should withdraw its operations from the Middle East. His goal was to introduce a government that had no influence from the west. Some people argue that USA operations in Iraq stimulate more anger among the Islamic community. The invasion and deployment of the elite forces in Iraq proves the propaganda of the terrorists to be true. The propaganda has it that American is an evil country that suppresses Muslims globally and invades Arab countries (Richard 2002). Though, the USA aims at protecting the liberty and freedom of all the people regardless of their religious affiliation.
On 11 September, 2001 I was the people who witnessed the most striking form of attack on American soil occurred.Where nineteen Al-Qaida extremists seized a total of four airplanes from the commercial sector crashing one into the famous pentagon in Washington (Mann, 2004). The other two targeted the twin towers in New York. The fourth commercial airliner was deliberately crashed in the country side of Pennsylvania. For the first time, the Special Forces were caught off guard. Neither I nor the air force could have imagined a commercial airliner could be turned into a weapon of mass destruction. Communication breakdowns also hindered any attempts of trying to handle the situation.
Operations carried out by the Special Forces
Immediately after the 9/11 attack, the first counter terrorism operation was conducted which was known as “operation resolute eagle” (Mann, 2004). Astonishingly, the operation was not done in the Middle East or Afghanistan, but in Europe. The extremists involved in the terror attack also took part in an ethnic conflict in Bosnia –Herzegovina. On September 2001 USA received an intelligence report indicating that the terror group associated with Osama Bin Laden was in Bosnia. The Special Forces team was given the task of carrying out operation resolute eagle to capture the extremists (Mann, 2004). The operation was very successful since after the capturing and detaining one of groups they were able to capture all the suspects after a massive gun battle.
“Operation Anaconda” as code named by the Special Forces was another operation aimed at driving out all Taliban’s from Afghanistan. Their duty involved locating enemy networks that were located underground. The intelligence of the elite forces shifted to the Gardez triangle that was believed to be the hiding place of the Taliban. Paktia province too had a huge concentration of enemy troops. The Operation Anaconda aimed at destroying all its enemies. This was among the many operations carried out by the Special Forces in Afghanistan after the deadly terror attack on American soil.
The Taliban regime fell in November 2001 (Mann, 2004). Factions originating from Afghanistan met in Germany to establish an interim government. Immediately the new government took over the Special Forces started training the Afghanistan national army. In 2003, the task was handed over to the TF Phoenix and seven ANA soldiers had undergone through superb training. The relationship between the terrorists and the Special Forces has always been rough with massive gun battles characterizing their encounter (Robert, 2004).
The United States has found itself in the middle of terror attacks throughout its historical development. Counteracting terrorism has always involved deployment of Special Forces and other forms of military power to protect its citizens from external attacks. The main causes of terrorism in my point of view are believed to constitute differences in religious beliefs and imperialism. Any type of terrorism however, is unacceptable due to the massive destruction of property and loss of life witnessed. Propagandists invalidate any moral argument they intend to air by carrying out a terror attacks. I believe people should follow ethical deeds used by Martin Luther king and Mohammad Gandhi in proving that violence is not a problem solver. All citizens must join hands to fight terrorism. Leaders should not bow down or run away from the problem but should continue to combat terror by gaining alliances with other nations. I also strongly believe no holy book or Bible indicates that human beings can take a life just because of a belief. No form of terrorism should be allowed to prevail.
References
Bernstein, R. (2002). Out of the Blue: The story of September 11, 2001, from Jihad to Ground Zero. New York: Times Books.
Bush, G. W. (2011).” Address to a Joint Session of Congress on Terrorist Attacks. “American RhetoricOnlineSpeechBank. Retrieved from http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/gwbush911jointsessionspeech.htm.
Mann, J. (2004). Rise of the Vulcans: The History of Bush’s War Cabinet. New York: Viking books.
Mitchell, L.E. (2010) .Journal of Homeland Security. Answer Institute for Homeland Security. Retrieved from http://www.homelandsecurity.org/journal/
Simpson III & Robert B. R. (2004). Inside the Green Berets: he First Thirty Years, a History of the U.S. Army Special Forces. New York: Presidio publishing limited agency.
Historically and geographically contextual, socially constructed, power relations
Surname
Tutor
Subject
September 4, 2012.
Historically and geographically contextual, socially constructed, power relations
Lynn Weber portrays the divisions inherent in the society as being socially constructed. They are power relations that subject an individual or a group of individuals to a given group based on the social constructs at that particular period in a given geographical environment. This means that they are contextual. Weber also asserts that the power relations operate at both the micro and macro levels of society (HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Lynn+Weber%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=5” Weber 132).
During the reconstruction period, the ideal white man was portrayed as stoic, dominative and strong. The ideal white woman was caring and emotional. The black man was considered silly and dependent on luck while the black woman was an emotionally strong and asexual woman. These were the social constructs at that particular time period as portrayed by Weber.
In the modern society, much of these social constructs have changed and taken on new dimensions though the underlying concept of power struggles still exist. Weber also says that for a group to maintain its power position, it creates social rankings to justify their position to subject the rest in the lower positions. That is the reason as to why there is unequal distribution of resources.
Weber’s claims are valid and can be proven by the manner in which the society changes. She says that no individual remains permanently in their defined group. Acquisition of knowledge enables individuals to rise to position of power and topple the accepted norm of social classes HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Lynn+Weber%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=5” (Weber 135). When individuals in a lower society or class, for instance the blacks in America refuse to accept their positions as portrayed in mainstream media, civil rebellions rise up with individuals claiming to be recognized as equals. This happened during the civil rights movement period when the blacks refused to be identified as second class citizens.
Weber claims that no individual is entirely an oppressor or a victim HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Lynn+Weber%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=5” (Weber 137). While this concept may be true in the corporate world, it might fail to apply in the social setting where women have been subjected to lower position since time immemorial. Women have been trying to raise their voices towards this subjugation but have not entirely succeeded in their quest.
Weber though makes assumptions when she tries to define the working class men and middle class men. The assertion that the working class men value physical strength and that middle class men value intellectual prowess is argumentative. Most men desire physical strength irrespective of their intellectual prowess.
On the whole though, Weber’s division of social classes is valid. Also true is Weber’s assertion that these social divisions are merely created in the mind and by the dominant class but can be toppled using various means.
Work cited
HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Lynn+Weber%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=5” Weber, Lynn. Understanding Race, Class, Gender, and Sexuality: A Conceptual Framework.
USA: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.
QR0323-01E-revised
SOC 2101 Case Study
Jiang Jiteng 300172850
University of Ottawa
SOC2101
2022/3/24
SOC 2101 Case Study
Introduction
The advocacy that iIllness communities bring to the world hasve changed the way people view diseases and also have helped significantly in addressing misconceptions, as well as stigma. Illness communities act as support groups, available both offline and online with the aim of providing necessary support to victims of chronic illnesses. The illness community that will be studied in this case study is the community of people living with HIV. People who are infected with HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) are more susceptible to infections and other disorders because the virus affects the cells that assist the body to fight infection. Most typically, it is required via unprotected sexual contact or by sharing injection equipment with someone who has HIV. AIDS may develop if HIV is not treated (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). The current paper will focus on discussion points including the biological and social characteristics of the community of people living with HIV, and how these characteristics process and influence the treatment of the community, as well as exploring the labelling and identity of the group members. This paper claims that disease characteristics and social characteristics can have an both positive and negative impacts on the treatment of disease groups, including the required exposure for ending stigma, governmental and non-governmental agencies participation, non-optimal medication compliance, poorer visit compliance, increased depression, and a worse overall quality of life in general, requiring that more stakeholders in the healthcare sector work towards educating the public, and not just the community of people living with HIV.
Characteristics of the community of people living with HIV
The characteristics of the community of people living with HIV necessitate mentioning the ways and means of transmission of HIV and the management of this condition. First, HIV is transmitted through three main routes: sexual transmission, blood transmission, and mother-to-child transmission. The primary cause of patient infection through sexual transmission is unprotected sex, a route of transmission that is common in both the heterosexual and LGBTQ communities. In fact, reports from Nelson et al. (2019) indicate that more than 32044 gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (gbMSM) were infected with HIV in 2018, representing about 51.7 percent of individuals living with HIV in Canada. There is also a high risk of contracting HIV during unprotected heterosexual sex, according to the American Centers for Disease Control and prevention (CDC). Having vaginal intercourse with someone who has HIV without the proper use of protection (like condoms or medicine to treat or prevent HIV), can lead to contraction of HIV (Haddad et al., 2019). The second route of transmission is blood transmission, such as through sharing the same syringe or other drug injection equipment. According to Kapila (2016), HIV can be transferred by intravenous, intramuscular, or subcutaneous injection of contaminated blood. This blood-to-blood transfer can happen through transfusion of infected blood and blood products as well (Kapila, 2016). The third mode of HIV transmission is mother-to-child transmission, which, as the name implies, occurs from mother to baby. According to HIV.gov, during pregnancy, delivery, or nursing, an HIV-positive woman might pass the virus to her child (Logie et al., 2018).
The treatment of HIV is one of the characteristics that affects the community of people living with HIV, and antiretroviral therapy (ARTs) is the most common treatment for the condition today. According to Okunola (2017), due to the fact that this treatment has significantly decreased the mortality and morbidity associated with this illness, antiretroviral therapy (ART) has become the mainstay in the care of HIV globally (Okunola, 2017). In summary, the way of transmission and treatment of HIV are the important characteristics that affect the treatment of community of people living with HIV.
Social characteristics of the community of people living with HIV
Social characteristics can affect the treatment of the community of people living with HIV. As I learned in class SOC2101, which focused on the social determinants of health (SDH), the community of people living with HIV is influenced by these very social determinants of health in terms of education, social status, gender, and access to healthcare. The awareness of the community of people living with HIV regarding HIV/AIDS mainly comes from the health knowledge education provided by both governmental and non-governmental institutions. According to international technical guidance on sexuality education, the protective impact of education in lowering vulnerability to poor sexual health outcomes such as HIV, and other sexually transmitted infections, is critical (Kalichman et al., 2009). Education can help prevent uninformed, high-risk behaviors and reduce the risk of HIV transmission, as well as make it possible for those already infected to start treatment.
In addition, the social status of the community of people living with HIV is a major factor influencing their access to treatment. Some people in poor areas do not have enough financial resources to support the expensive treatment costs and therefore give up treatment. According to Tsafack, (2009) in developing nations, the pandemic spread the fastest. This negative relationship between national wealth and HIV prevalence shows the role that better infrastructure, access to health care, and nutrition appear to play in the disease’s spread. Poverty also has an influence on HIV transmission because it restricts access to health care (Tsafack, 2009).
Furthermore, income is an important factor in the patient’s acceptance of treatment, which is somewhat related to the conflict theory I learned in SOC2101. Conflict theory emphasizes the inequality of social and health systems, where social resources are limited, but most of the resources are held by the upper social classes, and the upper and lower classes receive and are provided with different levels and types of healthcare. People in the lower income brackets often do not receive adequate attention and treatment when they need medical resources, so inequality in social resources and health systems is one of the social characteristics that affects the access of the community of people living with HIV to treatment. Not only that, but the reasons that influence the community of people living with HIV to accept treatment vary across different social stages. Poverty may hinder access to health care and subsequent treatment in resource-poor nations, whereas issues correlated with poverty, such as addiction or depression, may prevent persons living with HIV from adhering to treatment in resource-rich countries (Jonsen & Stryker, 1993).
The next meaningful social characteristic is gender. HIV continues to afflict women and young girls disproportionately over the world, but notably in Sub-Saharan Africa (Temah, 2009). The unequal social status of men and women also makes it more difficult for women to protect themselves from HIV. Women’s capacity to negotiate condom usage and protect themselves from HIV is often hampered by financial inequities and intimate partner violence in partnerships. Lower access to sexual health services, including HIV testing and treatment, is closely connected to gender inequality in education and social autonomy among women. Despite worldwide agreements to minimize the impacts of gender inequality, there is a need to considerably scale up efforts since social inequalities and violence against women continue to exist across the world (Women, U. N. & UNICEF, 2018).
Finally, the environment and location in which the community of people living with HIV live are also influential factors in determining their ability to receive effective treatment. The kinds of treatment available to the community of people living with HIV differ from region to region. The developed world has a more comprehensive medical facility system and a more universal medical policy, which allows people to have easy access to medical resources for timely and effective treatment, but people in poor areas are unable to receive effective treatment due to the lack of supporting medical facilities and medical policy, which negatively affects their health. According to Jonsen & Stryker (1993) the first shock of the AIDS pandemic was absorbed by each country’s public health systems—federal, state, and municipal. Since the pandemic has become more concentrated in low-income and minority groups in Canada, for instance, however, the public health system has become the major service provider for a significant number of persons living with HIV or AIDS at the local level. Drawing on from the above, the improvement of public facilities has a certain impact on the treatment of the community of people living with HIV. In summary, the discussion demonstrates that social characteristics affect access to treatment in the community of people living with HIV in terms of education, social status, gender, and medical infrastructure.
Labeling, stigmatization, and identity of the community of people living with HIV
As time goes by and knowledge becomes more widespread, increasing numbers of people can gain a basic understanding of HIV/AIDS, and the community of people living with HIV can gradually eliminate their prejudices often associated with the condition. In a time when knowledge was scarce, people often thought that suffering from AIDS implied gay sex and drug addiction (Garenne et al., 2001). Nevertheless, a phenomenon has been noticed all around the world whereby minorities that are marginalized, racially, ethnically, or sexually are all linked to HIV transmission (Kontomanolis et al., 2017). This helps to give purpose to the illness community, by providing a mandate for such groups to provide a platform for people living with HIV to get equitable health and social inclusion. In addition, the perception or stigma of the HIV community varies from region to region. In some places, people tend to think that the main means of transmission of HIV is the lifestyle of the community of people living with HIV, such as experimenting with risky sexual behaviors or using drugs, so in some areas, even with the knowledge, there is still a deep prejudice against the community. In South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, health-care workers and the general public have similar attitudes against AIDS patients, according to research revealing that 80% of nurses and 90% of doctors discriminate against AIDS patients (Logie et al., 2018). When they talk to the patient or provide treatment, they will physically distance themselves from them and medical workers’spouses will put pressure on healthcare workers, asking them to stop providing care to their patients. Among them, there is a widespread belief that HIV is only transmitted through sexual activity. Interestingly, while knowing the transmission channels well, the physicians do not appear to truly believe the facts (Ullah, 2011).
In order to quantify how the stigmatization of the community of people living with HIV is nearly uniform across cultures, the AIDS stigma scale was developed based on data collected from HIV patients in Cape Town, Swaziland, South Africa, and Atlanta, USA. Experimental analysis found that these data had some internal consistency and time stability (Kalichman et al., 2009). These data demonstrate that people with AIDS experience different levels of prejudice and discrimination regardless of their cultural background and location.
Nevertheless, this stigma is completely unfounded. It is often assumed that people with HIV are infected because of homosexual sex or drug use, and such statements undoubtedly label the community of people living with HIV inappropriately. In some areas of severe gender inequality, women have extremely low social status, so they have little right to demand that men take protective measures when they have sex and thus become infected with HIV. In addition, there is more than just sharing syringes as the only method of blood transmission of HIV (Logie et al., 2019). For example, if a patient receives a blood transfusion from a person with HIV/AIDS who has not been properly tested, that patient can also develop HIV, often in areas with poor medical care, and not only that, but according to HIV.gov (2022), HIV can also be transmitted through broken skin, wounds or mucous membranes, so the blood-borne route of HIV does not represent all of the inappropriate behaviors such as drug use. Therefore, those who discriminate against or try to stigmatize the community of people living with HIV are simply applying a perverse label on them and labeling them as abnormal, which is inappropriate and absurd.
The impact of the stigma and discrimination on the treatment for the community of people living with HIV is stark. According to the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010), people living with HIV have emotional and mental health issues as a result of HIV stigma and discrimination. People living with HIV frequently internalise their stigma and develop a bad self-image as a result. Internalized stigma associated with HIV can result in emotions of shame, fear of revelation, loneliness, and despair. People may be hesitant to get tested or treated for HIV as a result of these sentiments (UNAIDS, 2000). Thus, it is clear that stigma and discrimination have severely impacted access to treatment for the community of people living with HIV. Stigma has a negative impact on people’s lives. For persons with HIV, stigma has a detrimental impact on health outcomes including non-optimal medication compliance, poorer visit compliance, increased depression, and a worse overall quality of life in general.
Stigmatization should therefore be avoided. According to the CDC, we can act in several ways to avoid stigmatizing community of people living with HIV. First, we need to know how to talk about HIV to avoid stigmatization, and people should converse about HIV using supportive words, instead of stigmatizing language. Furthermore, positive actions should be taken towards people with HIV/AIDS, including physical contact such as hugging or shaking hands, thereby correcting the stigmatization of people with HIV/AIDS. Third, the basic knowledge of HIV should be shared as widely as possible, including the facts on how the infection spreads. To sum up, I believe that stigmatization and discrimination have a great impact on the treatment of AIDS patients, and these stigmatization and discrimination views are not correct. We should stop stigmatization and discrimination against AIDS patients through various means.
Conclusion
This paper has analyzed the disease characteristics and social characteristics of community of people living with HIV, as well as how social characteristics affect the treatment of community of people living with HIV. Finally, the harm of stigma and discrimination and its impact on treatment were analyzed, as well as ways to avoid them. Several findings of the study revealed that both disease characteristics and social characteristics could influence treatment of disease groups in both positive and negative ways. For example, the need for exposure to end stigma, participation by government and nonprofit agencies, poorer treatment adherence and compliance, increased depression and a worse overall quality of life were discovered, necessitating the involvement of a greater number of stakeholders in the healthcare sector to work toward education, and not just for the community of people living with HIV but the general public.
References
Ahsan Ullah, A. K. M. (2011). HIV/AIDS-related stigma and discrimination: A study of health care providers in Bangladesh. Journal of the International Association of Physicians in AIDS Care, 10(2), 97-104. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/1545109710381926 American Psychological Association (APA). (2010). HIV/AIDS and Socioeconomic Status. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “https://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/hiv-aids” https://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/hiv-aids
Centers for disease control and prevention (CDC). (2022). HIV: Ways HIV can be transmitted. Retrieved From: HYPERLINK “https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/hiv-transmission/ways-people-get-hiv.html” https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/hiv-transmission/ways-people-get-hiv.htmlGarenne, M., Lydié, N., & Garenne, M. M. (2001). Gender and AIDS. WHO monograph on Gender Analysis of Health. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “https://www.who.int/gender/documents/GenderAIDS.pdf” https://www.who.int/gender/documents/GenderAIDS.pdf
Haddad, N., Robert, A., Weeks, A., Popovic, N., Siu, W., & Archibald, C. (2019). HIV: HIV in Canada—Surveillance report, 2018. Canada Communicable Disease Report, 45(12), 304. https://doi.org/ HYPERLINK “https://dx.doi.org/10.14745%2Fccdr.v45i12a01” t “_blank” 10.14745/ccdr.v45i12a01HIV.gov. (2022). Preventing Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/hiv-prevention/reducing-mother-to-child-risk/preventing-mother-to-child-transmission-of-hiv” Preventing Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV | HIV.gov
Jonsen, A. R., Stryker, J., & National Research Council. (1993). Health Care Delivery and Financing. In The Social Impact Of AIDS In The United States. National Academies Press (US). Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234568/
Kalichman, S. C., Simbayi, L. C., Cloete, A., Mthembu, P. P., Mkhonta, R. N., & Ginindza, T. (2009). Measuring AIDS stigmas in people living with HIV/AIDS: the Internalized AIDS-Related Stigma Scale. AIDS care, 21(1), 87-93. HYPERLINK “https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120802032627” https://doi.org/10.1080/09540120802032627Kapila, A., Chaudhary, S., Sharma, R. B., Vashist, H., Sisodia, S. S., & Gupta, A. (2016). A review on: HIV AIDS. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Research, 4(3), 69-73. Retrieved from: https://scholar.archive.org/work/lzwc4h7bqbdi3d43szgydmjsge/access/wayback/http://ijpbr.in/index.php/IJPBR/article/download/916/528 Kontomanolis, E. N., Michalopoulos, S., Gkasdaris, G., & Fasoulakis, Z. (2017). The social stigma of HIV–AIDS: society’s role. HIV/AIDS (Auckland, NZ), 9, 111. https://dx.doi.org/10.2147%2FHIV.S129992Logie, C. H., Lacombe-Duncan, A., Wang, Y., Kaida, A., Conway, T., Webster, K., de Pokomandy, A., & Loutfy, M. R. (2018). Pathways from HIV-related stigma to antiretroviral therapy measures in the HIV care cascade for women living with HIV in Canada. Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes (1999), 77(2), 144. https://dx.doi.org/10.1097%2FQAI.0000000000001589Logie, C. H., Marcus, N., Wang, Y., Kaida, A., O’Campo, P., Ahmed, U., O’Brien, N., Nicholson, V., Conway, T., de Pokomandy, A., & Ogunnaike‐Cooke, S. (2019). A longitudinal study of associations between HIV‐related stigma, recent violence and depression among women living with HIV in a Canadian cohort study. Journal of the international AIDS society, 22(7), e25341. https://doi.org/10.1002/jia2.25341Nelson, L. E., Tharao, W., Husbands, W., Sa, T., Zhang, N., Kushwaha, S., Absalom, D., & Kaul, R. (2019). The epidemiology of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections in African, Caribbean and Black men in Toronto, Canada. BMC infectious diseases, 19(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-019-3925-3Okunola, O. A. (2017). Antiretroviral Therapy (ART): Evaluation of Art’s Perception among People Living with HIV/AIDS in South Western Nigeria. Journal of AIDS and Clinical Research, 8(650), 2.
Temah, C. T. (2009). What drives HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa?. Revue d’économie du développement, 17(5), 41-70. https://doi.org/10.4172/2155-6113.1000650UNAIDS. (2000). AIDS and HIV Infection: Information for United Nations Employees and Their Families. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “https://data.unaids.org/publications/irc-pub01/jc306-un-staff-rev1_en.pdf” https://data.unaids.org/publications/irc-pub01/jc306-un-staff-rev1_en.pdfWomen, U. N., & UNICEF. (2018). International technical guidance on sexuality education: an evidence-informed approach. UNESCO Publishing. Retrieved from: HYPERLINK “https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/ITGSE.pdf” https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/ITGSE.pdf