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Nigerian Face Masks
Nigerian Face Masks
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Nigerian Face Masks
Face masks are used to masquerade and disguise the identity of the people who wear them. They are used by numerous traditional African communities during different social occasions. They are used during events such as marriage ceremonies, funerals, religious festivals and other social events within the community. They are normally a part of a costume used especially for traditional music and dances.
Face masks are different and have many meanings depending on the community and event for which they are worn. Different communities have their own designs for maps depending on what they want to show and what has triggered it. This is the reason for the huge diversity in the kinds of masks from the community. Igbo and Ogoni people are part of the indigenous communities of the Nigeria.
The Igbo people of Nigeria are from South Eastern Nigeria also known as Igboland. They are among the largest groups in Nigeria. They practice farming as their major economic activity. They also fish and hunt. Their leadership is vested in the village councils, elders and men with titles. This are the ones who are the most prominent in the village and hence lead most of the festivities. The Igbo people are very creative as is shown by the way they pass on stories which tell how things happened and taught morals. They also made sculptures which have been displayed in museums around the world. Some statues had spiritual use while others act as status symbols for the owners. They are also known for their great architectural skills, mbari architecture.
Among the Igbo, carving is viewed as the work of men while women made baskets and did pottery (Aniakor & Cole, 1984). The Igbo people have set standards and rules on how sculptures are made with most of them having similar characteristics. They also made and decorated wooden items such as stool and doors. Items are made from wood and other natural materials. Pigment dyes and kaolin were used to decorate them. Other tribes that are involved in making masks are Ibibio, Yoruba and Anang.
As there are many Igbo villages, the types of masks differ among them and the purpose and ceremonies for which they are used are also different. It is often hard to distinguish between the mask from different areas of the Igboland. The difference in masks is because each village have their own experiences and history that influences their art work. The Igbo have a wide range of artwork and cultural practices. They also have thousands of masks that were created to look like spirits. Most of the masks are carved from wood and are painted white with chalk and kaolin. Examples of Igbo masks are Agbogho Mmuo, the Acali mask, the elephant mask and the Eze Nwanyi mask. Igbo masks were made in an attempt to tempt fate.
According to Njoku & Eberegbulam, these masks are used during entertainment, festivals, rites of passage, burials and sacred rituals. The masks were used to depict and represent different things. Some masks were worn only during specific events within the community but most were used for all events. Of the two most important mask types among the Igbo- those idealizing the qualities of young women, and those representing the powers of men (Aniakor & Cole, 1984). Common characteristics of the Igbo masks are small well placed features with tattoos and they are emphasized with pigments especially white on the face to depict the color of the spirit. The Igbo people believe in reincarnation after death and hence most of their masks depict their belief in spirits.
The Agbogho Mmuo or the maiden mask represents the spirit dead maidens. It is a symbol of beauty. According to Aniakor & Cole, the maiden mask artists favored red, orange, yellow and black pigments to highlight their carving and have three crests dramatically pairing positive and negative space. It depicts the ideal qualities of a young woman as desired by a young man. The maiden mask has crested hairstyle considered by the community as a sign of royalty and wealth to symbolize the wealth brought to her family when her bride price is paid during marriage (Aniakor & Cole, 1984).
They are used during agricultural ceremonies to invoke fertility in farm and bountiful harvests in the area. Dances and plays are done for entertainment. The Agbogho Mmuo is normally worn by men during dance. The mask can also be worn during the burials of prominent people within the society to invoke the spirits to accompany them as they are buried.
Another Igbo mask is the Acali mask is associated with the deity and respected members of the egbele secret society in Afikpo. It is made of wood and plant fibres. Pigment is used to bring out the features. Among the Igbo people from Afikpo, when one puts on the acali mask, they are transferred into a spirit. According to Ottenberg, the mask is worn during the dry season festival by the youngest dancers. It is not a very common mask compared to the maiden mask. The Eze Nwanyi mask or the Queen of Women represents a woman who commands the respect of everyone in the village and is a leader. It embodies the ideals of a mature female and is worn in ceremonies conducted to purify villages (Birmingham Museum of Art, 2010).
The Ogoni are among the smaller tribes of Nigeria and are located in Rivers State east of Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Their main economic activities is farming and fishing. Ogoni people are also rich in art and folklore including festivals where masks and costumes are used during song and dance (Gearon, 2002). They are used for initiations and ceremonies carried out in the villages. Ogoni masks have characteristic hinged jaws for more control. Masquerades are used for entertainment, for punishment and social control, to honor gods and to express male aggressions (Kpone- Tonwe, 2002). The Ogoni are known for their use of masks in festivals, cultural, religious and political.
The Ogoni have eight types of wood sculpture: small face masks representing women and men used for masquerading, larger more grotesque face masks representing restless spirits, small zoomorphic face masks, large face masks depicting fierce animals, human figurines representing ancestors, headdresses, carved figures, and puppets (Kpone- Tonwe, 2002). According to Kpone- Tonwe, Ogoni rituals concern recognitions of the ancestors, the growing of crops, the rearing of animals, and the significance of water to the region. Examples of Ogoni masks include the Elu face mask, the red Ogoni face mask.
The Elu face mask is used during celebrations, to entertain and at burials of prominent members of the society. It is made out of wood and pigment used to accentuate the features. The red Ogoni mask has a red face with black markings on the cheek. The cheek hinges at the jaw. The Ogoni masks are not as widely known as the Igbo masks. They are used as puppet masks and the hinges on them make it easier to control and entertain people especially children.
There are similarities between the Igbo and Ogoni masks. One is that they are both used in ceremonies of rites of passage, funerals, agricultural festivals among others. The medium used to make the masks in both communities is similar. Wood and sometimes bronze are the main materials used while pigments are used to accentuate the features are used. In both communities, they are worn during song and dance for with costumes. They are also equally talented in carving items out of wood making sculptures and other artwork. They were both used to invoke spirits and pray for their prosperity.
Among the differences between masks from the two communities is that the Ogoni Masks are smaller and have unhinged jaws compared to the Igbo masks which have a more articulated jaw which is useful for control when used as puppets. There are also different in appearance. Masks in Nigeria, especially among the Igbo and Ogoni, were used for many purposes mainly ceremonies. They were used during the dry season to invoke rain and to pray for plenty of food to be harvested. During other ceremonies and festivities, the masks are worn for entertainment and to pass messages to those present. Folklores also play a major role in the transmission of the traditions of the tribe. Each group has their own masking genre and masks names according to the tribe.
The culture of making masks is very important to the Igbo and the Ogoni people as it is a way to make the new generations understand the tradition of the community. They can also sell them as artifacts and gets money from them hence enhancing the economy of the people. The masks have also been instrumental in making the culture of the two communities especially that of the Ibo known as their masks and sculptures are displayed in museums and have a brief history about the piece that gives insight to their culture.
References
Aniakor, C.C. and Cole, H.M. (1984) Igbo Arts: Community and Cosmos. Museum of Cultural History, University of California: Los Angeles.
Birmingham Museum of Art. (2010). Birmingham Museum of Art: Guide to the collection. Birmingham: Museum of Art.
Eltis, D. & Richardson, D. (1997). HYPERLINK “http://books.google.com/books?id=kuXEzQZQmawC&pg=PA87&dq” Routes to Slavery: Direction, Ethnicity, and Mortality in the Transatlantic Slave Trade. London: Routledge.
Gearon, L. (2002). Human Rights and Religion. Brighton, UK: Sussex Academic Press
Njoku & Eberegbulam, J.E. (1990) The Igbos of Nigeria: Ancient Rites, Changes, and Survival. Lewiston, N.Y: Mellen Press
Puritanism era
American history exam
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Puritanism era
This was an era which was characterized by the many England colonists coming to the new world which was the current united states of America. According to William Bradford they came in peace and all their wish was to clear the England church of the catholic doctrines, rituals and practices. The major issue with the church of England as viewed by most of the puritans was the issue of not being fully away from the catholic church (Bradford, 12). William Bradford states that in the new world the colonists hoped that they will be able to fully separate themselves from the catholic church and be a free church of God based on the way of life of Christ and the bible. The puritans majorly followed the teachings of carl Luther who was a Swiss reformist. William wrote a manuscript and he is considered one of the great authors of the puritan period. His manuscript was named “of the Plymouth”. Most people knew the book as The History of Plymouth Plantation. It was an account of the happenings of the mayflower and the journey from England, Netherlands and even to the new world (Bradford, 11). It is a detailed book and it is one of the first books of history in America. William writes that the reason he wrote the book was so that the future generations of the pilgrims might appreciate the efforts and the sacrifices made by their forefathers and live to follow them (Bradford, 13). The book was written between 1630 and 1651 and it is a 270 pages book.
The other author who was of importance when it came to the life of the puritans was Edward Taylor. He produced different writings but he mas majorly a poet. The poetry of this period reflected the major ways of life the people them used to live (Stanford 139). There were three main principles when it came to puritanism and these were simple life, humbleness, and faith in God. These reflected the exact virtues taught in the bible and in the following of the examples of Jesus whom they were following. Some of his poems included Our Insufficiency to Praise G-d Suitably for His Mercy, housewife, upon a spider catching a fly among others (Stanford 137). For example, in his housewife, he writes a poem through which he tells God that he wants to be a better person pleasing to him and the only way for that to be possible was by making sure that he lived a simple life. He tells God that he should take away from him all material possessions and clothe him in his glory thus through this he could live a simple life pleasing to God. The other poems also express important issues and majorly the values of this time period and the society at that particular time.
The Great Awakening Era
Benjamin franklin was one of the major authors during the American enlightenment. The American enlightenment came after the major enlightenment which happened in the Europe. Franklin was an important American inventor, scientist and printer. He owned a printing site and he printed different newspapers and other reading materials which he set in 1728. He wrote the book named Poor Richard and it was one of the most influential books and items towards the American revolution or age of reason (Beeman, 146). This is because it encouraged the colonists and basically every person who was an American to do their best and work hard for the success of America and the making of America great. This book was loved by so many people that the average sales were ten thousand copies annually. Noy only was this book important, what was more important was the influence his printing had on the American revolution (Beeman, 149). He believed that access to information was a very powerful tool towards making a people better and therefore his writing and his printing contributed to the American revolution in a great way.
Jonathan Edwards was another important person and author during the period of the great awakening in the United States. He was a minister of the church in Northampton and due to the scientific way of living a lot of people had forgotten how they were supposed to work around their lives with God (Jenson). Most of the people were relying on science and they had become weak when it came to issues of the church. Jonathan revived the spirit of the people through his preaching and writings of books like the sinners in the hands of the angry god whereby he states that people were sinning and God was angry and therefore they needed to get back to their old way of life.
Romanticism
Ralph Emerson was born in Boston and he was a great influence during the period of American romanticism and specifically during the period of American transcendentalism. He was a lecturer, poet and essayist and he led the American transcendentalism (Emerson). He gave lectures and he published them in form of essays. He later got to tell the American writers that they should follow their own style and they should not just follow whatever that was being done by the other people in the other parts of the world (Emerson). Therefore, he encourages a lot of writers and indeed they stopped following what was being done by other writes or the writing styles of the other writers but began their won style of writing as Americans. Transcendentalists believed that God was known and that human beings could be more than just body but they could be better people and good people.
Hawthorne is another example of romanticism era writers and he writes in such a way that the romanticism era is well presented. In his writing my kinsman we can clearly see that this era consists of expression of emotions in the clearest way possible and that people are allowed to express what they feel not based on how society expects them but rather how they feel they should be like. Robin is the main character of the story and this evolves around making sure that the major issues which he faces are expressed and not hidden as it had been the norm with most people.
Abolitionism
Fredrick Douglass was one of the most influential people when it came to the issue of slavery. He was a black man who managed to escape slavery and for this to happen it was not easy. After he escaped slavery he later wrote about his experiences as a slave and this serves as one of the most important tools to people understanding slavery and thus very important. Therefore, his biography is an important information about the issue of slavery and how it was back then.
Peninnah Wheatley was a poet and she writes about slavery. Her book Poems on Various Subjects is important information and tool towards understanding poetry as she was an African who was sold to slavery and she experienced it in real life this means that she can understand what it was and through her poems, she expresses what her life was about and what she felt and what was done to them (Landry 120). Her writings are an important part of understanding this period and the whole issue of poetry.
Works cited
Bradford, W.. Of Plymouth plantation. American Literature Survey/W. Bradford//Ed. by Milton R. Stern, (1962): 11-33.
Stanford, Donald E. “The Earliest Poems of Edward Taylor.” American Literature 32.2 (1960): 136-151.
Beeman, Richard R. “Benjamin Franklin and the American Enlightenment.” The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2010. 145-149.
Jenson, Robert W. America’s Theologian: A Recommendation of Jonathan Edwards. Oxford University Press on Demand, 1988.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo. The transcendentalist. Alex Catalogue, 2000.
Landry, Donna. The Muses of Resistance: Laboring-Class Women’s Poetry in Britain, 1739-1796. Cambridge University Press, 1990.
The History and Culture of Sports in Berlin
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Topic: The History and Culture of Sports in Berlin
The history of sports can be dated as far back as the existence of people as purposive sportspeople and active beings. Children used to play around the homestead; it was used by people as a way of improving people’s social life as sport brings many people together. Sports were used as a way of uniting people of the community or the nation together.
Berlin is the capital city of German and holds is one of the sixteen states that are found in the country. It is the largest city in the republic and holds the history of being capital city of German’s republic. During its early ages of developing Berlin was a multicultural centre, the area was populated by Germanic Swabian and Burgundian tribes.It was a centre for commerce and agriculture as the town continued growing and merging with Cölln. It diverse in sports the most popular game being football which is played all over the city and has several football clubs. It hosted the 2006 world cup finals and has one of the highest professional football team that plays in the Bundesliga season games that take place in the spring.
Berlin constitutes, out of eight six, twenty four founders of the DFB, the German Football Association, the three main football clubs in Berlin Hertha BSC which was the only one allowed to play in western German, Union Berlin and Dynamo Berlin were the only teams to play in Eastern German during the cold war. The 2006 FIFA world cup was held in the Olympic stadium, the stadium hosted the later stages of matches in the summer Olympics with other sections of the matches being played in smaller grounds within the city (Rosen, 2008-97). The ground was also the host of the 1974 FIFA world cup which constituted both East and West German.
Hertha Berlin the original founders of the German Football Association in the 1900 was founded in 25th July 1892. It was the most successful football club that won two championships between 1930 and 1931. But due to the Nazi regime the club was abolished. The club was the founder of the German Bundesliga in 1963, in the 1999-2000 the club was the first ever representative of Berlin in the UEFA championship league. Union Berlin was formed in 1906 and plated for East Berlin during the cold war. Unlike Hertha this team was unsuccessful and did not win nay championship (Rosen, 2008-97). Dynamo Berlin was founded in the year 1953 in East Berlin too; the club was re-founded in 1966 and was made up of a secret police force. The club was known to be very corrupt, it won three championships, and they are the only club in Berlin to reach semi-finals of main European tournaments. Berlin also founded ethnic football clubs that include Jewish team and Turkish teams (Tomlinson, 2006-49). Due to the cold war the Jewish team faced several hardships but post War the clubs were able to fully establish themselves. The city also hosts women national team that won FIFA women’s World Cup in both 2003 and 2007 championships. They have their own Bundesliga but it is semi professional and doesn’t demand fan competition as the men do.
Taking advantage of the climatic condition of the place, the city is also well known for the hosting of winter games making it the most successful nation that hosts these kinds of sports. It is the only country in the world that has four bobsleighs, luge and skeleton tracks. They have won more medals in bobsleighs than any other nation other than Switzerland. In luge Berlin has been dominant winner stretching from its foundation in the 20th century in European championships. The city also takes part in ski jumping competitions and produces some of the best ski jumpers. It was one of the most successful ski jumpers in the mid 1980s to the mid 1990s. The sport constitutes both men and women both professionals in the sport. Speed skating has also become a major successful sport in the city too particularly in the women’s category. It also has a heritage in figure skating and ice curling and has been a regular competitor in Olympics after the sport was re-introduced in 1998 winter Olympics. The curling team, which has both men and women, won world curling championship in 1992 1994.
The city also hosts several other sports, however not as common or known as football and winter sports, these sports include golf which had the city produce the world number one who has won 2010 major golf tournament in two occasions (Bekker, 2005-513). Rugby team that takes part in the second division games, the first rugby team was formed at Neuenheim College around 1850. The German rugby federation was formed in1900. Basketball, handball and cycling; cycling had Germany dominate the winning position in France cycling competition producing some of the best cyclists. German is regarded as the birth place of hand ball. The first match of modern times was officially recorded in 29th October 1917 in Berlin. The hand ball Bundesliga is considered to be the most competitive professional league in the world. The country has won the handball world cup from 1938 to 2007.
German being the largest producer and the best producer of motorsport vehicles has also produced some of the best formula one racers the world has ever had, Michael Schumacher and Sebastian Vettel. Schumacher and Vettel have won more than ten titles since the championship began in 1950. Berlin holds some of the races that however are held in some other regions in Europe. Tennis is also a game that is played in the city and Germany has produced several professional and successful players that have represented Germany in Olympics giving it few titles. Boxing is among the most watched sports in German TV. The city of Berlin holds several boxing tournaments with players such as Max Schmeling being the heavy weight champion of the world between 1930 and 1932.
Berlin has been part of Olympics since the very first modern games held in 1896. In 1912 Berlin was chosen to the 1916 games but a war partially caused by the countries owns expansionist prevented the games from taking place. Germany being blamed for the First World War, the source of conflict had Berlin banned from 1920 and 1924 games. After being allowed to take part in the 1928 games, the IOC was impressed and once again 1936 Olympics were set to be held in Berlin. The 1936 Olympics also established the tradition of the Olympic torch relay with the torch carried from Olympia Greece to Berlin stadium. But by then the country was no longer a democratic nation. Under dictatorship and leading to the cause of the Second World War the city faced downfalls in sports (Rosen, 2008-97). Athletes could not compete with their own flag; they had to come up with another flag to represent their country. The Nazi regime used sports as a way of propelling their political aspirations; Max Schmeling who pulled an upset on an American boxer found himself a pawn of regime propaganda. As the years progressed the city slowly regained its position and status in sports. The government militarized many of the sports equating athletics to military quality. After the World war Two, Germans continued with their health and fitness; the country democratized sporting activities. Physical education is mandatory in both physical and secondary grades, summertime camping activities that include swimming and mountaineering were recommended as recreational activities. Academic study of sports has also grown in the country.
Sports serve several purposes in Berlin. German has been considered a unity and disunity country that has really affected its districts including its main city Berlin. But sports have been a major unifying factor for the nation (Rosen, 2008-47). Throughout the World wars, the city has managed to bring its people together and has also seen to it that the rest of the world is at peace with Germany. Sports have improved government relations between Germany and the rest of the world. Since the beginning Berlin has been prestigious in producing the best football teams and also production of quality and pro football. This earns the city fame and prestige. Through involvement between both men and women in sports, the city has promoted gender equality. The role of sports, through involving both genders, reflects the equity between men and women hence helps eradicate discrimination as sports reveals that women can also be as great as men. Sports also take the role of improving the health of the city, through sports and physical education to the children. This aids them to grow up as physically fit and is a good way of spending leisure time. Through hosting the Olympics and the winter tournaments the city’s economy grows since it exposes itself to different investors and business people that trade with the city. This helps in the growth of the economy.
Sports and culture has gone through ups and downs in Berlin and Germany at large but through the determination they have pulled through with the cities sporting activities improving progressively.
Rosen, Daniel M.. Dope: a history of performance enhancement in sports from the nineteenth century to today. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2008.
Bekker, Henk. Adventure guide. Edison, N.J.: Hunter, 2005
Tomlinson, Alan, and Christopher Young.German football: history, culture, society. London: Routledge, 2006.