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Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial Development
Author’s name
Institutional Affiliation
AbstractThe Erikson’s theory asserts that psychosocial growth and psychosexual growth take place concurrently and that at every life stage human beings are required to generate a sense of balance between the social world, and themselves. The elementary premise of Erikson’s theory is balance. This means that an individual endeavors to find a sense of balance in every life stage between the opposite and respective characteristics (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009). Erikson’s theory assumes harmony which is deemed as experience of the two sides in the psychosocial continuum.
Table of Contents
A TOC o “1-3” h z u bstract PAGEREF _Toc314853370 h 2Introduction PAGEREF _Toc314853371 h 4Trust Versus Mistrust (Birth To Approximately 18 Months) PAGEREF _Toc314853372 h 4Autonomy Versus Shame And Doubt (18 Months To Approximately Three Years) PAGEREF _Toc314853373 h 4Initiative Versus Guilt (About Three Years To Approximately Five Years) PAGEREF _Toc314853374 h 5Industry Versus Inferiority (About Five Years To Approximately 13 Years) PAGEREF _Toc314853375 h 5Identity Versus Role Confusion (About 13 Years To About 21 Years) PAGEREF _Toc314853376 h 6Intimacy Versus Isolation (About 21 Years To About 40 Years) PAGEREF _Toc314853377 h 6Generativity Versus Stagnation (About 40 Years To Approximately 60 Years) PAGEREF _Toc314853378 h 7Integrity Versus Despair (About 60 Years To Death) PAGEREF _Toc314853379 h 7References PAGEREF _Toc314853380 h 8Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc314853381 h 10
Psychosocial Development
IntroductionErikson proposed that the conception of human life follows a sequence of eight ages, beginning from infancy towards old age. Fundamentally, this theory states that every individual goes through eight psychosocial predicaments, which are internal conflicts associated with life’s major stages. These assist in defining a person’s growth as well as personality. Individuals go through these psychosocial predicament stages in a rigid cycle, although timings differ according to individuals and circumstances (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Trust versus Mistrust (Birth to Approximately 18 Months)In this initial stage, the primary duty of the ego is to institute stable patterns for conflict resolution between fundamental trust and essential mistrust.If the infant’s essential physical as well as emotional needs are offered for by the caregiver, but not over-protected or over-indulged, the infant nurtures a sense of trust. On the contrary, neglect or abuse destroys trust and increases resistance to exploration and risk. Additionally, the infant develops a position of mistrust in regard to interpersonal relationships. The maladaption in this phase is sensory distortion and soon after sensory maladjustment which materializes as unrealistic, deluded cognitions. The malignancy in this phase is withdrawal which materializes as fearful, depressive, and neurotic cognitions (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt (18 Months to Approximately Three Years)This phase takes place in late infancy, when the infant’s increasing physical development permits them rising independence, and contact with the environment. The fundamental struggle in this phase is between the sense of self doubt and self-reliance. During this phase the balance amid detestable self-insistence and loving goodwill is paramount.Subsequent to acquiring trust in the caregiver, infants start to realize that their conduct is their own. The qualities of willpower as well as self control are outcomes of successful resolution in this phase. Maladaptive tendency of this phase is impulsiveness, which is a brazen willfulness. The malignancy in this phase is compulsiveness (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Initiative versus Guilt (About Three Years to Approximately Five Years)The fundamental task in this phase is to attain a sense of initiative and competence. Initiative in this context is the aptitude to confidently plan actions. Guilt in this background is the sentiment that it is improper to initiate one’s individual design of something. In this stage, nurturing a sense of accountability in the child increases their sense of initiative. The virtues of direction and purpose result from successful resolution in this stage. The maladaption in this phase is ruthlessness which materializes in dispassionate and exploitative cognitions. The malignancy in this phase is inhibition which materializes as unadventurous cognitions (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Industry versus Inferiority (About Five Years to Approximately 13 Years)This stage is described as the entry to life. This phase is characterized by a child’s need to grow a sense of industry through taking pride in its production. Children develop countless competencies and skills at home, in school, and the outside world. The sense of self is enhanced by realistic development of competencies. Comparisons with their peers are extremely important. Industry in this context refers to meaningful activity, the growth of skills and confidence. Maladaptive tendency in this phase is thin virtuosity and materializes as obsessive and workaholic specialist cognitions. Malignant tendency in this phase is inertia which materializes as apathetic, lazy, purposeless cognitions. This includes persons suffering from inferiority complexes (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Identity versus role confusion (about 13 years to about 21 years)This is a transition phase between childhood and adulthood. This transition stage is as well a time for investigating limits, independence and instituting a new identity. The most significant conflicts in this phase concern self-identity, life’s meaning and life goals. Maladaption of this phase is fanaticism typified by extremist and self-important cognitions. Malignancy of this phase is repudiation typified by cut-off and socially disconnected cognitions. Individuals may reject their necessity for identity and probably to bond with a group that is enthusiastic to offer the person identity, for instance, militaristic organizations and religious cults (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Intimacy versus isolation (about 21 years to about 40 years)In this phase, individuals experience the developmental charge of shaping intimate relationships. The identity that was instituted in the previous phase is now shared with someone else. The virtues of affiliation and love are outcomes of successful resolution in this phase. Maladaptive tendency in this phase is promiscuity. This is materializes in sexually needy as well as vulnerable cognitions. These individuals are inclined to being intimate easily, devoid of restraint and depth. Malignant tendency in this phase is exclusivity that materializes in self-contained, cold, and reclusive cognitions (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Generativity versus Stagnation (About 40 Years to Approximately 60 Years)In this phase, there is a strong necessity to go past family and self and be concerned with assisting the next generation. This is a time to work out the disparities between dreams and actual accomplishment. The main concern is to help the younger generation in leading and developing useful lives. Bearing children is not a prerequisite for generativity, in a similar way that parenthood is not a warranty that generativity will materialize. The positive results of this phase outcomes of this predicament phase depend on contributing unconditionally and positively, resulting in the qualities of production and care. Maladaption of this phase is over-extension which materializes as meddling and busy-body cognitions. Malignancy of this phase is rejectivity. This materializes as cynical and disinterested cognitions. Midlife crisis occurs at this phase (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).
Integrity versus Despair (About 60 Years to Death)This phase may be regarded as a powerful lens by which to view an individual’s life, even prior to old. Characteristically, in this phase individuals reflect on their lives and critic themselves. Maladaption in this phase is presumption which is an attribute of conceited, arrogant, and pompous cognitions. Malignancy in this phase is disdain which materializes in miserable, blaming, and unfulfilled cognitions (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2009).ReferencesSeligman, L. & Reichenberg, L. (2009). Theories of Counseling and Psychotherapy: Systems, Strategies and Skills. NJ: Prentice Hall.
Herpes Simplex Virus
Herpes Simplex Virus
Name
Institution
Herpes Simplex Virus
The herpes virus or HSV causes viral diseases of the mouth and genitals in humans. Herpes simplex 1 and 2 are the two strains of the herpes virus and cause infections of the mouth and genitalia respectively. The virus could be inactive for a long period and reactivates later or causes overt diseases. Herpes virus belongs to the enveloped viruses. The virus is enclosed in a membrane that determines its infection potential. Viruses whose membranes are broken cannot cause an infection and can only be infectious when in contact with mucosal membranes of infected individuals. The viral structure also has a tegument, which occurs between the membrane and the capsid. The tegument has enzymes and virally encoded proteins that trigger the infection initiation. On the surface of the virus are receptors, which determine the cells infected by the virus (Hunt, 2010).
HSV-1 causes sores and fever blisters on the face and mouth, also known as oral herpes. It is transmitted through infected oral secretions, which can be passed through kissing, and sharing of utensils and personal items such as toothbrush and lip balm. The symptoms of oral herpes include sore throat, swollen lymph nodes in the neck, fever, burning sensation around the nose and mouth, and small blisters around the mouth area, which are normally painful and fluid-filled. HSV-1 also causes genital herpes although on rare occasions.
HSV-2 causes genital herpes, which is mainly characterized by sores on the groin. The sores could occur on other body parts, but they mainly occur below the waist. The virus is spread through sexual contact when one is exposed to open sores or semen. Mothers living with the virus could pass it to their children at birth if the vagina has open sores at the delivery time. Therefore, expectant mothers should seek medical advice before delivery. Irresponsible sexual behaviors such as unprotected sex and many sexual partners predispose an individual to HSV-2. Other risk factors include existing sexually transmitted diseases, compromised immune system, and being female. Genital herpes manifests itself through symptoms such as sores and itchiness in the genitalia, and pain during urination (Looker, Garnett, & Schmid, 2008).
There is no cure for herpes, but various preventive measures are essential. For example, people should avoid sharing personal items, have responsible and protected sex, wash hands regularly, reduce stress, and avoid kissing and performing oral sex on infected persons. Facial herpes can be prevented by wearing sunscreen to protect the face from direct sun. Factors such as sunlight, menstruation, stress, existing medical conditions, and fever often trigger herpes symptoms. Asymptomatic individuals can spread herpes sans having any visible sores on the body because the virus could be in the latent period. Diagnosis of the disease involves a physical examination of the patient for the symptoms such as sores on the mouth and genitals. Confirmatory tests include herpes culture and blood tests for the HSV-1 and HSV-2 antibodies. Since there is no cure for herpes, doctors can prescribe broad-spectrum antivirals such as acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famciclovir, which can be in the form of creams or pills. The drugs help suppress the symptoms of herpes reducing the cases of outbreaks, and the chances of spreading them to other persons.
Anybody who encounters infected material is at risk of contracting herpes. HSV-1 has been a common occurrence in America since 90% of the population has been in contact with the virus at one time. HSV-2 is prevalent among sexually active individuals since it is spread through contaminated fluid such as vaginal secretions and semen. In sub-Saharan Africa, the rate of infection among men is between 10-50% and 80% among women. The rate in South and Central America is 20% to 40%, which is highest among women. Developing Asian countries have lower prevalence rates than other regions, which range between 10-30% (Looker, Garnett, & Schmid, 2008). In general, 20-30% of all sexually active adults are infected, especially among prostitutes, immunosuppressed individuals, and socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. Genital herpes predisposes infected individuals with HIV/AIDS and it is a leading cause of morbidity. The prevalence rate of herpes is projected to increase if people do not embrace safe and responsible sexual habits and minimize contact with infected individuals. The statistics are estimated to increase in the future unless scientists discover a cure for herpes.
The herpes virus causes infection by binding to the surface of the target cell with the correct receptors. There is a fusion of the virus and the cell membrane at the appropriate pH, which enables the formation of syncytia and cell-to-cell transmission between the infected cells. The nucleocapsid then binds to the nuclear membrane and the genetic material of the virus enters the nucleus of the cell. Alpha, beta and gamma proteins are fundamental to the transcription process that leads to the maturation of the virus. The DNA-dependent RNA polymerase I enzyme transcribes the viral DNA into RNA. The synthesis of the viral RNA determines if the infection is persistent, lytic or the virus becomes latent. The virus then encodes its own DNA and there is an assembly of the virus with the DNA filled nucleus. The virus buds out of the double nuclear membrane or plasma membrane and exits the cell through exocytosis. The virus at this stage is infectious and causes disease in the host (Hunt, 2010).
Prions cause neurodegenerative disorders in both animals and humans, and are known to cause the mad cow disease in cattle. The first disease incidence occurred in 2003, in the United States. The United Kingdom was the first country to report cases of the disease, and 98% of the global cases were reported to occur in the country between 1986 and 2001. The cases continued to increase worldwide with 25% in 2000 and 55% in 2003. However, the prevalence of prion diseases has remarkably reduced over the years. Unlike viruses that multiply inside the host, prions act as templates of abnormally folded proteins when they infect the brain of mammals. The abnormal proteins cause neurodegenerative diseases such as Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans and mad cow disease in livestock and cattle (Weiss, 2004).
References
Hunt, R. (2010). Virology: Herpes viruses. Microbiology and Immunology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Looker, K. J., Garnett, G. P., & Schmid, G. P. (2008). An estimate of the global prevalence and incidence of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection. World Health Organization. Retrieved on 13 April 2014 from http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/10/07-046128/en/
Weiss, H. (2004). Epidemiology of herpes simplex virus type 2 infection in the developing world. National Center for Biotechnology Information. Retrieved on 13 April 2014 from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15115627
The Haber Process
The Haber ProcessStudent’s Name
Institution
Individuals Involved in the Haber ProcessDensely populated European countries imported the Peru-Island guano and the Chilean-salt petre for use as a natural source for nitrogen provision in the 1800’s. Depletion of these natural avenues crafted the necessity for nitrogen extraction from air, a challenge that was bestowed on scientists (Fullick & Fullick, 2001).Fritz Haber developed a mechanism that involved use of high pressure, catalysts and heat to synthesize ammonia. The German company BASF chemicals purchased the idea and tasked Carl Bosch with its up-scaling to fit factory production, a process Bosch saw through by 1913. The two scientists involved in the creation and development of the whole process were therefore Fritz Haber together with Carl Bosch; reasoning for its naming as the Haber-Bosch Process.
History of the Haber ProcessThe commercialized Haber process was not an Agricultural invention but was a necessity of war. It was implemented by Germany to meet the shortfalls encountered after the British and Allied forces stopped Nitrate imports from reaching Germany (Joesten, Hogg & Casteleon, 2007).Haber had discovered a means for ammonia synthesis through using high pressure and a heating temperature of about 600o Celsius. Catalysts’ addition was gradual and was done a drop at a time. However, Haber’s original idea could only generate a cup after a long period of waiting and could not be of benefit to the nation as it was (Fullick & Fullick, 2001).When the idea was bought by the BASF Chemicals, a third party, Carl Bosch, was engaged and commission by the company to improve the idea to achieve a commercial status. It took Carl Bosch nearly four years to develop the Haber idea whilst its blueprints were developed by Haber from 1905 to 1909.The process for obtaining the hydrogen used for the ammonia synthesis involved blowing steam over hot coke to separate oxygen from hydrogen. Nitrogen extraction, on the other hand, involved liquid air distillation then the subsequent cooling and compression of air (Smith, Richards & Newton, 2004). The process has been technologized and modernized in the current processes world over.The Haber process has helped achieve new realms in Agriculture through; increasing food production, helping in the balance of the Nitrogen Cycle (Fullick & Fullick, 2001). However, it has its repercussions as the process requires a lot of energies to realize and the fertilizer produced cause pollution during runoff. It also has a negative effect on soil together with the soil microbes.
The Mechanism of the Haber ProcessThe Haber Process is a combination of Nitrogen obtained from air and methane derived hydrogen to form ammonia. The reversible process is exothermic to imply that it produces a lot of heat. The process can be summed up in the equation:
N_2(g) + 3H_2(g) catalyst 2NH_3 (g) tag{ΔH=-92.4 kJ/mol}
The Haber Process Flow-Scheme
Nitrogen extracted from air 400- 450oC
200 atm Catalyst (iron)
Hydrogen extracted from Ammonia
natural gasliquid
Conditions for the Haber ProcessTemperature
The equilibrium should be shifted to the right to enable maximum proportions of ammonia in the mixture of the equilibrium. It is weighty to note that as the forward reaction consumes a lot of energy (endothermic), the backward is exothermic. The equilibrium shift is managed when temperatures are lowered to the range of 400-450 cHowever, low temperatures slow down reactions and there is little relevance in slow production for high proportions. The gases should be in equilibrium within that the short span of catalyst contactsThe temperature stated above is one of compromise that can be used to produce large enough volumes of ammonia with high proportions.
Pressure
Increasing pressure results in reactions that favor a few molecules production. The resultant of that is a subsequent drop in pressure. To increase ammonia production, high pressures that are not less than 200 atmospheres should be engaged. High pressures push the molecules together and increase chances of the reaction with the catalysts (Smith, Richards & Newton, 2004).200 atmospheres is an economical choice for achieving temperatures above that is costly and would beat the economies of scale.
Catalyst
The amount of catalyst only serves to increase the reaction rate of the equilibrium but has no impact on the ammonia production amount. However, the exclusion of the catalyst slows up the reaction significantly (Smith, Richards & Newton, 2004).
Ammonia Separation
Gases leave the reactor at extremely high temperatures and pressure. Ammonia temperatures are lowered to enable its liquefaction under high pressure. Hydrogen and Nitrogen maintain their gaseous states even at this pressure and are subject to recycling.Oxidation of Ammonia to Nitric Acid is conducted by its mixing with air at a ratio of one part to nine parts respectively.
Ammonia Uses
Ammonia aid in various industrial processes that include fertilizer production, chemical synthesis, production of pharmaceuticals, and in refrigeration. Other uses involve cleaning and softening of pulp and paper among others (Joesten, Hogg & Casteleon, 2007).
How Haber Process Affected the Imperial Germany
Germany had become the world’s leader in chemical technology in the immediate years preceding World War I, Germany. However, with limited resources of her own, Germany relied heavily on imports from other countries, the leading of whom was Chile from which they imported nitrates (Lesch & Conference, 2000). With the tension buildup prior to the world war, Germany felt threatened at the prospect of British Marines and submarines blocking their ships and felt the necessity for the creation of their nitrate. The costs for the long shipping distance were also escalating and were beating Germany’s economy of scale. Moreover, Germany’s large-scale importation was already depleting the resource at Chile as they had consumed a third of Chile’s produced nitrate in 1913 only.The factors put together inspired the commissioning for the development of a process through which the abundant atmospheric nitrogen could be extracted for commercial use. The creation of the Haber process lasted from 1905 to 1913; the time when it was officially commercialized (Lesch & Conference, 2000).Facing challenges on how to break the allied trench guard during World War I and how to effectively fire explosives at that close range without harming Nazi soldiers, the Imperial Germany developed a strategy. Haber suggested grouped trench mortars to shoot T-stoff bombs which could not be implemented because of resource scarcity. Haber’s following suggestion involved the use of chlorine gas that devastated the allied forces.However, the Imperial Germany did not just use the Haber process for weaponry only. It was also used for fertilizer production to facilitate agriculture to ensure security of food during the war. Importation could not serve as a remedy as the British controlled the oceans (Lesch & Conference, 2000).Haber Process gave Imperial Germany dominance during the world war, serving them with victories on many fronts.
Conclusion
The Haber Process is a chemical achievement that has made milestones in setting and changing history. It cut industrial overreliance on depletable resources and changed the whole warfare factor. The Haber process has also changed the global Agricultural sector and ensure food security. The invention has had its pros and cons
References
Fullick, A., & Fullick, P. (2001). Chemistry for AQA: Coordinated award. Oxford: Heinemann.
Joesten, M. D., Hogg, J. L., & Castellion, M. E. (2007). World of chemistry: Essentials. Australia: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
Lesch, J. E., & Conference on the German Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century. (2000). The German chemical industry in the twentieth century […Conference on the German Chemical Industry in the Twentieth Century … on March 20-22, 1997, at the University of California, Berkeley…]. Dordrecht [u.a.: Kluwer Acad. Publ.
Smith, B. E., Richards, R. L., & Newton, W. E. (2004). Catalysts for nitrogen fixation: Nitrogenases, relevant chemical models, and commercial processes. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.