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The Great Famine
The Great Famine (1315-1317)
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The Great Famine (1315-1317)
Nearly the entire Europe experienced constant rains that persisted throughout the summer and autumn of 1314 and most of 1315 and 1316, resulting in enormous crop failure throughout the country (Baek et al., 2020). Before this event, the country’s population was rapidly growing as a result of the expansion of agriculture. As such, an unexpected shortage in food for the enormous population triggered serious famine. The famine led to the death of approximately 5-12% of the northern European population due to starvation or related illnesses (Smerdon et al., 2019). It prompted class warfare and political discord that destabilized the whole region. As such, daily items including wheat, grain, barley, bread, oats, and salt unimaginably soared such that a lot of people, even if they could access these items, could not afford them. The situation grew worse to the extent of parents abandoning their children to fend for themselves while others resort to stealing and even killing others trying to feed themselves.
Furthermore, other people were given no choice but to eat horses and dogs, and the possibility of cannibalism is also reported. The famine is believed to have worsened the effects of the Black Death, an epidemic of the bubonic plague that affected Europe, Central Asia, and North Africa at the start to mid-1300s. The Black Death outbreak is considered the first of many crises that struck Europe during the Late Middle Ages (DeWitte & Slavin, 2013). Therefore, as the severe winters and cold, rainy summers continued, the famine peaked in spring 1317, and normal weather patterns were experienced in summer 1317. It, however, took five more years before the food supply returned to normal.
The Great Famine (1315-1317) is majorly attributed to the Medieval Climate Anomaly (MCA) experienced by Europe just before the famine. The MCA is a time in the Middle Ages where global climate variation occurred. In particular, warming was experienced in regions such as Europe, North America, and Asia between 830 and 1100 CE, while the Tropical Pacific experienced cooling (Baek et al., 2020). Changes in hydrologic cycles were also evident where the United States, Middle East, Mexico, equatorial Africa, and southern Europe were drier. On the other hand, Eastern South Africa and Northern Europe were wetter. The overall narrative is that farmers during the MCA took advantage of the warm weather and cultivated crops on unsuitable lands, resulting in a surplus of crops that bolstered population increase to three times Europe population at the time (Smerdon et al., 2019). Therefore, the end of the warm period in the 1300s in the northern hemisphere triggered the start of the Little Ice Age. In this period, extensive cooling and a decrease in median worldwide temperatures resulted in cold weather and heavy rains in Europe. Consequently, the torrential rains have a severe impact on food supply across Europe as a result of rotted crops and emergences of diseases that infected livestock (Smerdon et al., 2019). The resulting effect was an inconsistent and inadequate supply of food necessary to feed Europe’s enormous population, leading to the famine between 1315 and 1317.
References
Baek, S. H., Smerdon, J. E., Dobrin, G. C., Naimark, J. G., Cook, E. R., Cook, B. I., … & Scholz, S. R. (2020). A quantitative hydroclimatic context for the European Great Famine of 1315–1317. Communications Earth & Environment, 1(1), 1-7.
DeWitte, S., & Slavin, P. (2013). Between famine and death: England on the eve of the Black Death—evidence from paleoepidemiology and manorial accounts. Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 44(1), 37-60.
Smerdon, J. E., Baek, S. H., Dobrin, G. C., Naimark, J., Cook, E. R., Cook, B., … & Cane, M. A. (2019, December). A Paleoclimatic Context for the European Great Famine of 1315-1317. In AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts (Vol. 2019, pp. PP11C-1399).
Neurobiology of social bonding and recognition
Running Head: Neurobiology of social bonding and recognition
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November 27th, 2010
Abstract
The function of Prolactin otherwise known as (PRL) to the pathogenesis and development of human breast cancer has more and more been cherished especially at the cellular level, transgenic and epidemiological respectively. Functioning at the endocrine and autocrine/paracrine echelons, PRL works to stimulate the growth and motility of individual breast cancer cells. The accomplishments of this ligand are intervened by at least six renowned PRL receptor isoforms initiated on, or concealed by, human breast epithelium. The PRL/PRL receptor intricate associates with and triggers various indicating systems and is shared with a mixture of associates of the cytokine receptor super folks. Faced with the lately recognized intranuclear function of PRL, these structures are linked into the in vitro and in vivo roles provoked by ligand. In this paper we highlight about the neurogenesis, paternal identification and the utility of prolactin (PRL).
General Scientific Context
Mammals distinguish each other on the basis of a peculiar distinctive body odor; offspring recognition between mother and kin has been well characterized during early development and adulthood. During mating, parenting and reproducing recognition depends on genetically programmed body odors. Social recognition tests in rodents rely on the intrinsic motivation the have for investigation novel conspecifics when introduced into familiar a cage (Garcia & Buylla, 2002). Mark and Weiss argue that recognition of offspring by mouse fathers is mediated by prolactin adult neurogenesis in the mouse’s olfactory bulb and hippocampus.
Contribution of male to offspring affects the physiology of the fathers; it decreases the testosterones and increases prolactin. Prolactin is invoked as the fatherhood hormone, plasticity changes in the olfactory bulb and hippocampus are thought to participate in the formation of various social behaviors and olfactory memories (Sigman, 2001). Given the neuroendocrine changes associated with paternity they examined whether neurogenesis is modulated with postnatal offspring interaction and if new neuron in the paternal brain are involved in adult offspring recognition. The results bear out that neurogenesis increased in the olfactory bulb and dentate gyrus of the adult paternal brain and that the newly generated neutrons may be important for an adult offspring recognition behavior.
Function of Prolactin (PRL)
Survival
PRL is aggressively employed to restrain apoptosis of mammary cancer cells. Even though the capacity to support cell endurance is apparent in the Nb2 lymphoma replica structure, proof for a comparable action in mammary epithelial units is simply starting to materialize.
Motility
Various epidemiological findings have shown that PRL might as well function as an evolution variable for human breast malignancy. Since improved motility is one factor of the metastatic process, a latest research has questioned whether PRL could serve as a chemo magnetizer for people’s breast cancer in vitro. Analysis by monolayer wounding, time-lapse video microscopy, as well as Boyden chamber reviews, PRL was found to imperatively advance the motility of ER+ and ER-cell lines. This debate indicated to tag along the PRL pitch and culminated in important amendments in the cytoskeleton, with the P13k-depedent pattern of lamellipodia and anxiety fibers. Attached with pattern findings reviewing the impacts of PRL on the evolution of rodent mammary carcinoma, these outcomes would propose that PRL might add importantly to the meta-static phenotype of breast cancer.
Angiogenesis
The PRL control a direct impact of PRL on mammary epithelial cells, PRL might also control mammary carcinogenesis by altering vascularization. Here, a proficient tumor development and progression is anchored on the adequacy of blood supply secured by the neoplastic cells. In a nutshell, among myriad functions of the PRL, it contributes to the management of neovascularization in the cancer surroundings by the stability of angiogenic integral hormone and antiangiogenic cleavage artifact.
Figure 1 below shows the Nuclear actions of PRL
Materials and methods
In order to carry out an investigation of parental adult offspring recognition behavior, pairs of eight-week-old male and female mice were place in individual cages. They mated and kept together for the duration of prenatal and postnatal period. At six weeks the mice exhibited ability to discriminate between their female and male offspring. The paternal recognition behavior is unique from general social recognition since male mice were able to distinguish between their cage mates and non cage mates after short term separation. The results suggest that the adult offspring recognition behavior of male mice is dependent on paternal and postnatal offspring interactions (Buonviso, 2000). Male mice form a recognition me memory for their own young. The male laboratory mice will exhibit paternal behavior towards newborn offspring. If the offspring are not genetically related to the male, it does not form a memory and does not distinguish the offspring from strangers when it encounters then as adults (Ming & Hongjun, 2002).
Nevertheless if the offspring are genetically related to the male the prolactin- mediated neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus and SVZ during the time of paternal care forms a lifelong recognition memory. The neurogenesis in the olfactory bulb and hippocampus in the fathers is further enhanced by the exposure to their pup, and the neurons born in the mice brain at the time of the birth of his genetic offspring are the same neurons that are activated on a reunion later (Moreno & Linsterol, 2009)
Discussion and Results
Olfactory recognition memory requires a distributed neural network for memory formation and short-term memory. The main olfactory bulb has uncomplicated structure which involves three layered cell types granule, mitral and periglomerular cells. Olfactory perceptual learning is important for basic olfactory functions since it sets the degree for discrimination between stimuli hence contributes tot the perceptual representation of the environment that guides the animal behavior (Brennan & Kendrick, 2006).
Studies have suggested a role of neurogenesis in associative discrimination learning due to the low rate of neurogenesis, lately a study showed no effect of blockade of the neurogenesis on olfactory discrimination. The contradicting results are likely related to difficulty of discrimination task used, the more the difficult a task is it require newborn neurons (Linster et al, 2006). The increase of the total number of newborn granule cells in the main olfactory bulb accompanies a longer and stronger olfactory memory. Even though a direct link is not demonstrated by this result between neurogenesis and behavioral performance , the combination of an increase in the number of the olfactory bulb structural and interneuron at the synaptic and dendritic levels and the releases of the factors mediated by the bulb activity it improves the olfactory memory.
Conclusion
In our modern existence, the epidemiological statistics suggest a comparatively strong positive association flanking circulating PRL echelons and breast cancer threats in postmenopausal women. Nevertheless, this is centered mainly upon a large positive research and two minute ones. Inadequate statistics presently exist to judge whether a relationship is also current among premenopausal women. To review the independent impact of PRL on threat, future findings must nevertheless comprise dimensions of other plasma hormones like steroids and IGFs. Even though the practical function of PRL in nonlactating mammary tissues is increasingly recognized, it is nevertheless known whether the impacts of PRL are direct, or whether PRL induces expression of additional variables that might modulate or directly mediate, the observed results. Plainly, much more work is needed to comprehend the indicating pathways employed by PRL to support tumorigenesis in mammary cells, connections of these signaling cascades and their intricate regulatory loops with diverse oncogenes, development variables and hormones significant in mammary carcinogenesis, and differences in PRL actions flanking normal and tumor cells. Nonetheless, experiments in cancer development can be complicated by the interruption of mammary gland evolution that happens with deletion of particular molecules in the PRL pathway. The ongoing evolution of PRL-centered opponents holds promise at jamming the actions of PRL at the endocrine as well as autocrine echelons within the breast.
References
Brennan, P. & Kendrick, M. (2006). Mammalian Social Odors. Attraction and individual recognition 361, 2061–2078
Buonviso, N. & Chaput, M. (2000). Olfactory experience decreases responsiveness of the Olfactory bulb in the adult rat. Neuroscience 95:325–332.
Garcia, V. & Buylla, A. L. (2002). Neurogenesis in Adult Sub Ventricular Zone. Neurosci 22:629–634.
Linster, C. Mandairon, N., Stack, C. & Kiselycznyk, C. (2006). Enrichment To Odors Improves Olfactory Discrimination in Adult Rats. Behav Neurosci 120:173–179.
Ming, G. & Hongjun, S. (2002). Adult Neurogenesis in the Mammalian Central Nervous System 223-244
Moreno, M. & Linsterol, C. (2009). Factory perceptual learning requires adult neurogenesis. Vol 4: 106-9
Sigman, G. (2001). The neural basis of perceptual learning. Neuron 31:681–697.
Healthy Attachment and Parent-Child Relationship
HEALTHY ATTACHMENT AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIP
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Healthy Attachment and Parent-Child Relationship
Attachment behaviour begins at infancy and most reliable from a single caregiver. The importance of a caregiver is to offer emotional and social support to the infant. The relationships of children with caregivers determine the development process. Ainsworth & Bowlby (1965) are the co-founders of studies dealing with attachment behaviours. The studies began after World War II when many children and people were left homeless. The studies reveal that children are sensitive to caregivers showing affection and in close contact for more than six months. Infants develop the learning process and advances in development from the familiar individuals. Caregivers offer patterns of attachments that lead to the development of emotions, expectations, and relationships (Kerns et al. 2000). Attachment behaviors may results to anxiety the moment an infant losses contact with the familiar caregiver. The patterns of behavior change resulting in adaptive response, and in the prevailing relationship. The behavioral changes results are essential in development, and survival mechanism of the child.
Secure attachment is essential for infants towards development to adulthood. Children are sensitive to rejection; caregivers have the role of offering comprehensive attachment that is attractive and emotional to the children. Social development starts from positive attachment behaviour. Studies on attachment behaviour give a preview on attachment therapies and formation of policies in regard to child support. Attachment behaviour indicates the existence of bond that lead relationship. Infant attachment requires consistency in order to increase social interactions. Social interaction shows element of exploratory behaviour through the quality of social activities. Biological mother is an essential figure towards consistency in attachment behaviour and the social interaction activities. Parents of a child play a role in giving attachment figures to the child and advancement towards social interaction. The attachment behaviour on exploration gives set-goals that require achievement as the child develops. Development of child leads in the creation of natural curiosity leading in a desire to learn (Kerns et al. 2000).
Exploratory behaviour is essential in the child’s development since it triggers emotions of curiosity. Curiosity allows the child learn new developments that are essential in the child’s personal and social adjustment. Exploratory behaviour develops from infancy that involves differentiation between boys and girls to adulthood that triggers innovation. Activities present in child development and attachment arouses curiosity that describes the personality of the individual. Environmental conditions have a role in producing exploratory behaviours. Physical signs that indicate exploration are kinds of new situations, change of face muscles, and frequency of questions asked by a child. Reflex and random behavioural movements are examples of exploratory behaviour common in the infancy stage. Psychological equipment gives rise to random behaviour movements and gives rise to unorganized responses. Reflex actions in infancy are exploratory behaviours that are either introspective or extroceptive. Physiological conditions resulting to exploratory behaviours are emotional reactions and attachment (Mahler, 2000).
Cultural differences results to differences in attachment forms. The methods of studying the differences in the attachment are reliable and valid. The tests methods are secure and are babies cannot avoid them. Reunion behaviours emerge from studies in separation anxiety and stranger anxiety. Children seem to overreact in strange situations hence their normal behaviour. Separation anxiety involves observing the child’s reaction after biological mother leaves. Reunion behaviour involves observing the child’s reaction after return biological mother. Secure attachment results to responding timely to the child’s need and recording of child’s signals. Studies on reunion behaviour involve observing reactions on secure attachment, Insecure Resistant and insecure avoidant. The child runs and enthusiastically greats the biological mother in secure attachment. The child is happy to see the mother back but resists close contact in insecure resistant. The child does no concentrate on the presence of the mother after her return in the insecure avoidant (Kerns et al. 2000).
The infant may get attached to toys more than the caregivers. In such situations, the child develops low cognitive experiences and socialization skills. Advancement in technology allows some children to use humanized toys in their daily play. The interaction of children with toys reduces the caregiver involvement in teaching the child good morals and behaviours in the society. The absence of parent and human nature denies the child exploration, attachment and reunion behaviours. The child lacks the affection nature of human being and results to advancement in elements of discriminatory traits. Many toys in children results also to increase in discriminatory traits through discriminating some toys and increasing preference to the new toys. It is difficult to train the child on good societal morals at adulthood. The caregiver of the child has the role of scheduling time for toys and also for human interaction (Cyr, et al. 2010).
Study on children reveals signs like placing hands at the back and shaking of shoulders as unclear impressions. The similar signs reveal tension and stress on the children. The major cause of tension in children could be denial of mutual acceptance and separation incidences. Some children cry while others control the cry result to unhappiness. The mixed signs in children results to stereotypic characteristics and misleading conclusions. The caregiver has difficulties in identifying the true character and the needs of the child. Scholars have difficulty in conducting studies on disorganized attachment due to varying signs and behavioural changes in the child (Cyr, et al. 2010). Children should not receive treatment in a disapproving manner since it breeds hatred. Disorganized attachment may decrease due to improvement in the child’s changes.
The Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) is procedural training that helps the adults in avoiding dangerous intimacy and relation with children. The adult gains skills on identifying and preventing dangerous intimate relationship. The theories on AAI get basis from Ainsworth studies hence becoming an extension of the study on disorganized attachment. The intention of conduction AAI studies is seeking self-protection through identification of infant attachment patterns. True cognition on AAI studies get reserved and socially inhibited. In some situation, the infant need compulsively compliant. The Adult Attachment Interview related childhood experiences with parenting features. The disorganized attachment involves insecure-avoidance on the caregiver. The AAI system is continuous and allows study on state of mind on the caregiver in terms of attachment. The participants in Adult Attachment Interview get relations of psychometric properties to assist in interpretation of observable signs (Van Ijzendoorn, Schuengel & Beckerman’s–Kranenburg, 1999).
The first category of cognitive organization detected by use of AAI is coherence of transcript. The caregiver has a steady flow of ideas regarding attachment. The caregiver reflects on each action, speaks slowly and is at ease with the attachment type. The second category involves dismissing adult attachment. The scoring of AAI detects the behaviour of the caregiver and relates to historical experiences. Dismissing adult attachment is highest upon identification of discrepancies between the caregiver behaviour and past experiences. The third association involves preoccupied adult attachment. Some infant attachment involves anger towards caregiver. Changes in speech, presence of run-on sentences and grammatical errors result in the high score on preoccupied attachment. Anger expression attachment results to disorganized attachment between caregiver and infant. At infancy, disorganized behaviour suggests parental temporary collapse on behavioural strategy (Van Ijzendoorn, Schuengel & Bakermans–Kranenburg, 1999).
Reference:
Ainsworth, M., & Bowlby, J. (1965). Child Care And Growth Of Love. London: Penguin Books.
Cyr, C., Euser, E. M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & Van Ijzendoorn, M. H. (2010).
Attachment Security And Disorganization In Maltreating And High-Risk Families: A Series Of Meta-Analyses. Development and Psychopathology, 22(01), 87-108.
Mahler, M. S. (2000). The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant: Symbiosis And
Individuation. New York: Basic Books.
Van Ijzendoorn, M. H., Schuengel, C., & Bakermans–Kranenburg, M. J. (1999). Disorganized
Attachment in Early Childhood: Meta-Analysis of Precursors, Concomitants, and Sequelae. Development and Psychopathology, 11(02), 225-250.
Kerns, K. A., Tomich, P. L., Aspelmeier, J. E., & Contreras, J. M. (2000). Attachment-Based
Assessments of Parent–Child Relationships in Middle Childhood. Developmental Psychology, 36(5), 614.