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Types Of Companies, Sole Proprietorship, Limited And Corporation
Types Of Companies, Sole Proprietorship, Limited And Corporation
A sole proprietorship business requires a single person to run and operate it, and it is easy to start since it is not a legal entity. A partnership business requires two or more people in order to start a business for profit purposes the business also is not a legal entity. Both partnership and sole proprietor have a disadvantage of unlimited liabilities where they can lose their personal assets to cater for liabilities themselves. Partnership business is not stable since any change of from membership can dissolve it. There are partnerships and limited partnerships. A limited partnership business can be created by filing with the state that can have at least one limited and general partner. Usually a limited partner is not entitled to liabilities or debts accrued.
A corporation business owes its formation to the statutes in states where it is applicable. One of the advantages of a corporation business is that it allows shareholders limited liability corporations to have legal status, and their assets are not at risk of being issued to cover for liabilities. This form of business is potential permanent existence but their management changes with time. The formation of a corporation may be seen as a disadvantage as it requires filling complicated documents with the state and needs registration fee which might be costly. Double taxation done in corporations is a disadvantage as it is taxed on its earnings plus the share holders are charged when receiving dividends. Subchapter S corporation is the only corporation that prevents double taxation since it has flow through taxation.
An (LLC) limited liability company is a type of business that its formation is through application tothe state, and it tries to combine the advantages of partnership and corporation. LLC has filling and formation is done under the statute in addition, it has low filling cost, flow through taxation as the members get taxed on their earnings, and the business is not taxed. Corporation and LLC these have limited liability where the business caters for the liabilities brought forward in the business. However, some members may take advantage and treat this advantage as a shield to hide which may be a disadvantage to other members. When deciding to start a business, an LLC is the best choice of business to deal with since it combines the advantages of partnership and corporation businesses. Therefore, it is better than the partnership and corporations as well as the sole proprietorship.
Types of Committees in the US Congress
Types of Committees in the US Congress
The legislative branch of the American national government is what is known as the congress, it encompasses the three main branches that dictate power separation system. There is a consecutive numbering for congress that is from the first session numbered (1789-1791) to the current (2013-2015) which is the current 113th session. A congressional session may continue for an entire year and the bills under consideration stay alive for the entire year but the ones not approved by the closure of congress die off.
Since congress is the federal government legislative branch it makes the laws necessary to determine and govern which governmental programs and agencies are approved or created and the governmental funds expenditure and oversight on how the executive branch administers the laws or programs it has passed. Congress constitutional laws are tasked with powers to declare war, coin money, pass bills, establish federal courts and determine their jurisdictions, raise an army and navy, regulate commerce, make rules that govern naturalization and immigration, whenever necessary they can approve appointments, impeach government officials and president. Some of their functions have recently changed example court jurisdiction changing is nowadays used as a means of sending a message, since approving demonstrates an assertion of their power over the other governmental branches. In addition, the fact that currently laws making sub-committees and committees that review the elaborate structures of bills have been formed (Galloway, 99).
There are specific committees formed by congress to oversee specific functions as a way of aiding the legislative branch with more time to accomplish their own complex and daunting tasks with ease. The legislative internal and oversight administrative tasks are divided evenly among the almost 200 sub-committee and committee members. Enclosed tasks within their assignment include the evaluation and gathering of legislative alternatives, gathering information, determining, selecting and reporting measures that would be considered fully by the chamber, propose while identifying problematic policy issues, overseeing the executive branch overall performance and reviewing any cases of its wrongdoing, they also help in some of the House petition discharges that are difficult to pass and this extends their jurisdiction over certain subject matters which result into a semi-autonomous power expansion.
The United States government has 3 main types of committees; these decisions are made by the committees for the government and affect all the U.S. citizens and by understanding the types of the available committees it is easier to understand the United States legislature and government. It is with this understanding of the congress roles that this article discusses the three main types of committees namely the joint, special or select and standing committees (Congressional Research Service, 12).
Special or select committees often established by a separate resolution of the chamber mainly to conduct studies, consider adequate measures and investigations. The select committees often review emerging issues that exceeds the existing standing committee jurisdictional boundaries or doesn’t fit well within their mandate. A select committee may be temporary or permanent but all the committees that are currently in the Senate or House are considered permanent. The Senate sometimes instead of the select committee can also be referred to as special committees an example is on the aging special committee.
The standing committees are permanent panels identified by the chamber rules they are called so due to extent of their jurisdiction in the legislative. Standing committees consider issues, recommend measures and review bills for consideration by the chamber respectively they are also tasked with monitoring activities, agencies and programs due to their given oversight responsibilities; this applies mostly to areas beyond and within the committee’s jurisdiction.
Most funding levels at the standing committees oversee the governmental authorization for existing and new programs. In addition, some of them have other distinct functions example the recommendations made to the legislation by the Appropriations Committees to provide the federal programs and agencies with budget authority. These budget committees help establish aggregate levels for the total revenue and spending that often act as appropriation and authorization guidelines for the relevant panels (Bruce,29).
Another type of committee is the joint committee which comprises of permanent panels mainly consisting of members from both the chambers. They often perform or carry out housekeeping tasks compared to considering measures, for example the printing joint committee oversees the federal government functions mainly on their printing procedures and printing office. The joint committee’s chairmanship often rotates between the senate and House. Temporary committee is an example of a joint committee that has been set up to review and resolve any differences that may occur between Senate and House measure versions. The joint committee’s conference draft has to find a compromise between the two chambers positions, which then get submitted to the senate and full House for approval.
Reference
George B. Galloway, History of the House of Representatives (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell, 1961), pp. 99-100
Congressional Research Service, Senate Committees: Categories and Rules for Committee Assignments. 2006. pp.12.
Bruce, Desk Reference on American Government (2nd edition), Congressional Quarterly Press, 2000, pp. 23-29
TYPES OF COMMITMENT AND THEIR EFFECTS IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
TYPES OF COMMITMENT AND THEIR EFFECTS IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
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TYPES OF COMMITMENT AND THEIR EFFECTS IN INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
The topic of organizational commitment has been explored widely in relation to its various aspects and their subsequent resultant effects on the work output by the employees of a particular organization. This paper focuses on the different types of organizational commitments and the consequences they have on the employees and to the organization ultimately. Various sources of information including case study analysis involving the levels of organizational commitment are explored and examined to provide support to the purported claims. The paper seeks to establish the idea that enhancing organization commitment among employees in an organization results in improved job performance and organizational efficiency as well as output.
Mowday, Porter, & Steers (1982) described organizational commitment as “the relative strength of an individual’s identification with and involvement in a particular organization.” Many researcher in the past four decades proposed that organizational commitment was better measured in relation to the organizations’ employee turnover rate as opposed to the level of job satisfaction among employees. However, Camp (1994) moves away from this school of thought and suggests that presently, organizational commitment denotes the degree to which employees’ and organizations’ goals are in agreement. It goes towards showing the extent to which employees identify and strain to fulfill organizational goals.
This present idea of gauging organizational commitment examines certain employee attributes. Key among these is the appraisal of employee identification with organizational goals; intention and willingness to remain working for the organization; and the level of motivation to fulfill organizational obligations and goal achievement. These attributes consolidate into the three types of organizational commitment which form the focus of this paper. They are categorized into: affective e commitment; continuance commitment and normative commitment. Camp (1994) points out that the degree to which employees commit themselves in each of this category has its own resultant effects in the role they play on achievement of organizational goals.
Affective Commitment
Out of the three types of organizational commitment, affective commitment (AC) can be regarded as the most explored area. Research on this particular attribute has proven that there is a significant positive relationship between AC and employee output in an organization. Rhoades, Eisenberger and Armeli (2001) argue that AC is the most imperative determinant of employee loyalty and dedication. In essence, their research found that employees that are affectively committed determined acquire a sense of identification and belonging with the organization, as opposed to those with little or no AC.
As a result, the resolve of such employees in the pursuit of organizational goals increases accordingly. They become willing to aggressively participate in organizational activities and push the given agenda forward, even at their own personal expense. They acquire an emotional bond and unique affiliation with the organization they work for which in turn increases their desire to remain with the organization. Studies conducted by Meyer and Allen (1997) also pointed out strong evidence on the relationship between AC and organizational turnover rate, absenteeism from work and performance levels among employees.
In the same study, certain attributes contributing to the experiences workers undergo at the workplace proved to be strong antecedents of employee affective commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1997). In particular, systems such as supervision support in the organization as well as employee rewards schemes and procedural justice processes proved to be closely associated with the levels of AC, as opposed to organizational structural features or even the individuals’ personal characteristics, among employees.
Rhoades, Eisenberger and Armeli (2001) reiterate that this phenomenon, where there is formation of emotional commitment towards the organization, may be explained by the Organizational Support theory. The theory has been put across by a number of scholars and it assumes that:
“In order to meet socio-emotional needs and to assess the organization’s readiness to reward increased efforts, employees form general beliefs concerning how much the organization values their contributions and cares about their well being (perceived organizational support)” (Rhoades, Eisenberger and Armeli 2001).
Perceived Organizational Support (POS) tends to make employees personify the organization. This is leads to the development of AC and based on the concept of reciprocity, employees connect emotionally and respond to their AC towards the organization commensurately.
The combination of positive POS and AC among employees leads them to reward the organization by increasing and improving their efforts towards attaining the goals set out for them by the organization. Another consequence of increased AC among employees is a reduction in the rate of voluntary employee turnover.
Continuance Commitment
Continuance commitment refers to the accumulated costs an employee acquires over a period of time while attached to a n employer. This include: transferability of skills, pension plans, seniority benefits among others. The value of these elements usually appreciates over time the more an employee remains with one employer. Continuance commitment (CC) therefore refers to the value of these elements that an employee risks losing if they quit their jobs.
Suliman and Iles (2000) conducted a study on the impact of CC on job performance amongst factory employees in three different companies. The employees were fulltime workers in an industrial manufacturing plant and when confronted with the subject of changing employers, most of them stated that it was not an option they would consider. Among the many concerns they listed were: lack of an attractive alternative opportunity and the benefits they had acquired during their employment period at their present workplace.
However, Dixit and Bhati (2012) state that the CC approach develops in an employee who has perceived the potential loss of the perks and benefits they have accumulated while working for an employer; and in an employee who while working realizes that they do not have any alternative employment opportunity should they decide to leave their current employer. In such a case, the employee can be termed as cognitive of his/her predicament.
In an employee, the awareness results in increased CC to the organization. Resultantly, this has been proven to increase the productiveness of employees and their dedication to achieving organizational goals. Increased positive CC is as a result of the realization that the risks of losing the accrued benefits might be a cost too high for them to bear. The realization also makes employees appreciate their work and commitment to improving it further to avoid losing any accrued “investments” that they have worked for. The organization benefits as a result.
Normative Commitment
Normative commitment (NC) refers to the commitment towards and organization by an employee due to the pressures arising from societal norms calling for employees to be committed to their organizations out of obligation. Some of the commitment may also arise from a personal sense of duty to the organization. Research on NC has nonetheless found that it positively affects the organization in relation to employee motivation and work output.
Meyer and Allen (1997) point out that NC develops based on influences from various experiences during the formative years of an individual. An example is that of growing up in a family where parents insist on and live by proper work ethics such as being punctual to work and remaining loyal to employers. Cultural influences may also come into play when developing NC.
According to Dixit and Bhati (2012), NC plays a significant role in determining individual employee work output and general attitude towards work. It is closely related to continuance commitment since it is based upon beliefs that the resultant benefits an employee gets from the organization oblige him/her to remain loyal to the organization. NC advocates for the acceptance of employment terms and subsequent reciprocation, irrespective of the level of fulfillment the job gives the employee or how much the organization rewards the employee (either by improving salary, status or other benefits) over the span of their employment.
Despite these shortcomings on the employees’ person as a result of NC, the organization usually ends up profiting from the loyalty of employees with high NC. However, most forward thinking organizations usually tap into the abilities of employees exhibiting high NC and reward them commensurately. This further motivates those employees into giving more time and energy in pursuing organizational goals and at the same time, motivates those employees with low NC to improve themselves and their efforts in the workplace and subsequently improve the organizations’ output.
References
Camp, S. D. (1994). Assessing the effects of organizational commitment and job satisfaction on turnover: An event history approach. The Prison Journal, 74(3), 279-305.
Dixit, V., & Bhati, M. M. (2012). A Study about Employee Commitment and its impact on Sustained Productivity in Indian Auto-Component Industry. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 1(6), 34-51.
Meyer. J. P., & Allen, N. J. (1997). Commitment in the workplace: Theory, research and application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mowday, R. T., Porter, L. W., & Steers, R. M. (1982). Employee-Organization Linkages: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism, and Turnover. New York: Academic Press.
Rhoades, L., Eisenberger, R., & Armeli, S. (2001). Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support. Journal of applied psychology, 86(5), 825-836.
Suliman, A., Iles, P. (2000). Is continuance commitment beneficial to organizations? Commitment-performance relationship: a new look. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 15 (5), 407–422