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Principles of behaviorism
Unit V (5) Journal
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Principles of behaviorism
Behaviorism denotes a theory of learning that asserts that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment by a process known as conditioning. Behaviorism, also referred to as behavioral psychology also denotes a learning model based upon the notion that all behaviors are obtained through conditioning. On the other hand, conditioning happens by the interaction with the environment. Behaviorists have confidence in the fact that our responses to ecological stimuli nature our behaviors. Behaviorism, also referred to as behavioral psychology, also denotes a model of learning grounded upon the notion that all behaviors are obtained through conditioning. On the other hand, conditioning happens by the interaction with the environment. Behaviorists have confidence in the fact that our responses to ecological stimuli nature our behaviors. Behaviorism is a viewpoint on the knowledge that emphasizes changes in a persons’ noticeable behaviors.
As a result, the behavior is just a response to environmental stimuli. I have ever used the principles of behaviorism on several occasions. The principles of behaviorism learning comprise of the role of consequences, schedules of reinforcement, the immediacy of consequences, the role of antecedents, reinforcers, punishers, and maintenance. I have ever tried the principles of behaviorism on my younger sister, who studies in a high school. My sister had a tendency of behaving poorly each time. I had to develop a behavior management system in hopes of motivating her to behave better. At the end of each day, if she conducted herself well at an acceptable level, I buy her chocolate. At the end of the week, if she behaved extremely well, I promise her a nice shoe. Once she behaves well for an additional one week, she then gets a new shoe. My hope was that a new shoe’s incentive would motivate her to behave extremely well and work hard in class. The hope is that she will continue to exhibit the desired behavior because of the shoe reward until it eventually turns into a habit.
Behaviorism principles are epitomized by a series of proceedings and perhaps result in a “time-out” period. I have ever for once used time-out as a disciplinary tool towards my misbehaving brother. I responded to actions through reinforcement that was to be expressed by positive or negative feedback. When an individual does something troublesome or unacceptable, we may use seclusion as a type of punishment called a time-out. The leading debatable aspects of behaviorism might concern learning and language and thinking, which is just considered both a form of behavior. One example of behaviorism that I could have put into practice was using therapeutic techniques from behaviorism to help individuals in our region overcome specific issues like drug abuse, depression, and other concerns. The principles of behaviorism I used on my sister made her change her behavior completely because of the motivation she got from me. The principles of behaviorism are the popular concept that centers on how individuals learn or change their behavior. It centers on the perception that all behaviors are learned by interaction with the environment.
Topic 1 The Lying Promise by Immanuel Kant
Topic 1: The Lying Promise by Immanuel Kant
Is lying permissible? This is a question that many grapples with daily as life presents endless opportunities for dishonesty with friends, with family, on taxes, in games. Lies co-exist side by side with the truth, and human beings lie routinely, knowingly, and unknowingly. People lie for various reasons; some lie for personal gain, while others lie with deliberate intent to conceal the truth to protect others. In a complex situation, honesty seems second best to values such as justice, compassion, and respect. However, various philosophers believe that lying is morally wrong. One of such philosophers is Immanuel Kant. He argues that human beings have the moral responsibility to be truthful as lying corrupts human qualities and takes away people’s ability to make free and rational choices. Although lies form an integral part of human nature, Kant views them as morally wrong and fundamentally unreasonable acts that deprive dignity.
Deontological ethics plays emphasis on the relationship between the morality of human actions and duty. This perspective evaluates human activities from the characteristics of the act itself and not the consequence of the action. Kant constructs the basis of morality from the concept of duty; it requires individuals to follow the rules and do their duty without considering the cost and benefit of the situation (1785/1993, 390-391). He bases the morality discussion under categorical imperatives; morality commands individuals; one cannot opt-out of it or claim it does not apply to them. He argues that the only good that can be unqualifiedly virtuous is good will; no other goodness has this status as individuals can use the other acts of goodness to achieve immoral ends (1785/1993, 391). Good will is always good and maintains moral values even if it does not achieve honest intentions. Kant argues that good will stems from duty and overcome hindrances to keep the moral law; this implies that only acts performed with regard to duty have moral worth (1785/1993, 394). In regards to Kant’s morality perspective, a morally upright person is someone who always does their duty because it is their duty regardless of whether they enjoy doing it or not. For example, individuals who keep their moral duty of paying taxes irrespective of what the government does with taxation and whether they enjoy it have moral worth.
The first formulation under categorical imperative is the formula of the universal law of nature that operates under the principle “Act only in accordance to rules or principles through which you can and at the same time will that it should become a universal law (1785/1993, 399-402).” This implies that all rules and principles that individuals act on must be such that they are willing to make it the case that everyone else always operates on the same rules and principles when in the same situation. For instance, if an individual borrows money and promises to pay it back even though they have no intention of paying. In this case, the guiding principles and rules are such that; when an individual is short of money, they borrow promising to return although they are aware this will never happen. Therefore, the individual should be willing to accept this as a universal law where everyone else’s short of money can borrow and promise to pay back, knowing they have no intention of paying back.
According to this formulation, the permissiveness of moral reasoning undergoes four steps. First, individuals formulate the rules and principles they propose to govern the action. Second, develop the rules and principles into universal law governing everyone. Three, consider if the rules and principles are conceivable in a world governed by this law of nature. Fourth, individuals question whether the rules and principles will rationally govern their actions (1785/1993, 402). An act can only be morally permissible if it passes all four steps. For instance, the rules that allow individuals to commit suicide to escape life’s misfortunes cannot be accepted as it will fail step three; the action is impossible in the world.
According to Kant’s morality perspective, there are ways of acting that are always wrong; wrong for any individual, society, and anytime. For instance, it is morally wrong to make a false promise that you have no intention of keeping (1785/1993, 421). Kant’s Lying Promise is a case where an individual makes a lying promise to achieve something they need. It presents a scenario where an individual borrows money promising to pay it back even though they have no intention of paying it back (1785/1993, 421). The guiding rule and principle in the case are when an individual is short of money; they borrow promising to pay back although they are aware they will never do so.
Kant argues that the Lying Promise is immoral because if an individual makes a promise they do not intend to keep to others, they treat others as a means, not as ends. Individual is lying to benefit themselves, using the other person as a means (1785/1993, 421). Secondly, Kant argues that lying promise is morally wrong as individuals use others in ways they might not consent to if they knew the truth. Individuals should respect other people and not manipulate them in ways that benefit them (1785/1993, 422). People should treat others with dignity. Additionally, Kant argues that the lying promise is morally wrong because every individual in society can’t adopt the act of making false promises. Thus, when individuals lie, they lie to people who might honestly keep their promises, treating themselves as an exception in the process (1785/1993). People should universally accept the maxim of an act; if individuals expect others to keep their promises, then it is their obligation to keep their promises.
In the case of a lying promise, the individuals should accept the universal law of nature that individuals who are short of money can borrow with the promise of returning even though they have no intention of paying it back. From the Formula of Universal Law of Nature, lying promises present a case where the guiding principle and rules are; anyone in a difficult situation can make any promises they deem fit for the problem with no intention of keeping the promises (1785/1993, 422). According to the Formula for Universal nature of law from permissible reasoning, this guiding principle fails the Universal Law of Nature test. First, the maxim is inconceivable as a universal law of nature. Promises and truth are a significant part of society; therefore, guiding principles and rules that make promises and truth meaningless are irrational (1785/1993, 421). Secondly, the maxim is self-defeating and inconsistent, and the only way it can work is if the person telling a lie is exempted from following the guiding principles and rules. The maxim provides that individuals lie to get what they want; if this becomes the case, then the individual in the society will not believe one another; therefore, the lie will not work.
Kant’s view on the morality of the lying promise has elements of good and bad arguments. Making a promise to an individual with no intention of keeping to reap benefits is a case of manipulation that robs someone of dignity. The individual in need is using people as instruments to achieve something. Using lies to manipulate and disrespect others is morally wrong (1785/1993, 423). However, there are some aspects of the arguments that raise concerns. For instance, lying promise falls under imperfect duties; the act limits its pursuit practically. Therefore, the view that everyone can adopt making promises they cannot keep making the principle of borrowing by pretense unsuccessfully in the community is limited (1785/1993, 422). Moneylenders have alternatives of dealing with those not keeping their promises of repaying them. Therefore, everyone in society can’t adopt borrowing by pretense (1785/1993, 422). Secondly, the argument that the moneylender might not consent to making promises they have no intention of keeping; therefore, the loaner lying to him is using him as a means to an end presents a limited scope (1785/1993, 422). The scenario can fall under an individual’s violation of imperfect duties to others compared to the breach of perfect obligations such as individuals’ rights. The issue is not as grave as Kant puts it.
Additionally, in the case of a lying promise, the guiding principle is “when an individual is short of money, they make a promise they have no intention of keeping.” This implies that the loaner successfully gets the money from the moneylender, revealing the lender’s trust towards the loaner (1785/1993, 422). This trust might have been built by other people who were in the same situation as the loaner. This implies that not everyone is making a false promise, or else the moneylender would not have given the loaner money. This negates Kant’s argument that the false promise will be universal.
Lies form an integral part of human life and co-exist side by side with truth. Kant view lies as morally wrong and fundamentally unreasonable. He constructs the basis of morality from the concept of duty and presents different formulas to explain moral reasoning. The Formula of Universal Law of Nature advocates for individuals to adopt guiding principles that others can adopt if in the same situation. Kant uses the lying promise to present his argument on the morality of lies. However, the views do not incorporate the broader scope of the ethics of lies.
References
Kant, I. (1993). On a supposed right to lie because of philanthropic concerns. Grounding for the
Metaphysics of Morals, 63-7. Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. Indianapolis/Cambridge.
Principles of Analysis of Algorithms and Sorting Methods
Principles of Analysis of Algorithms and Sorting Methods:
Background information:
An algorithm can be described as a properly characterized calculating process that is able to take in some figures as inputs and give out some figures as outputs (Cooper & Linda, 2008). An algorithm provides a gradual method for solving problems of calculations.Algorithms differ from computer programs because they do not rely on a specific programming language, system or machine. They are arithmetic units that have unlimited random access memory and a limitless word size.
Methodology:
Empirical methods are used for studying the performance of algorithms that are not able to be analyzed using techniques from computational hypotheses.Empirical methods are the most feasible ways of studying the performance of algorithms (Matthew, 1997). Empirical analysis is able to by pass some of the problems that can befall a purely theoretical approach.There are several advantages of empirical science and one of them is that it does not depend upon proving hard worst-case and average-case theorems.It is also has the ability to focus on typical analysis in addition to having zero restrictions to simple and unreal distribution of problems.
According to( Steven, 2005), empirical concept is the opposite of hypotheses,but despite this difference,empirical concept has certain theoretical bits to it.In the early stages of the empirical concept of an algorithm,there are a few tests that are run just to see what happens.What follows is a hypotheses which is then tested empirically.After everything is done,one may put together a very clear solid picture that tries to elaborate the importance of certain aspects.This sort of improvement illustrates that even though empirical is practical,its eventual conclusion is theoretical because it has to be elaborated.One thing that is mostly misleading is the word empirical.
Results:
As indicated in the solution to the problem E2, the absurd instance for the contiguous insertion sort is at the time when the list provided in the reversed order. The normally would need k-1 relations and k+1 problem, for the kth entry to the provided list, with the n- values being checked, providing the most absurd case relation count of;
∑n/k-2 (k-1)-1/2(n-1)n.
Counting every key enthused provides a total assignment count for this scenario of ½(n-1)n.The contiguous list sorting illustration program permits diverse contiguous sorting schedules to be applied without changing the program.
Program: contiguous Sort test (Key in, output).
{prior: NillAfter: the number of principal comparisons, the Computer time, and the coursework for the contiguous sorting program systems has been computed.
Sorting:
When temp.key>Lentry{mid}.key therefore
the bottom:=mid+1
Otherwise top:=mid end;
For the j:=1 downto mid + 1 do start Assignment:=Assignment+1; entry(j) :=entry {j-1}.
The summary of the progress:
Processing In-state Old out state New out state Work list
J3 {} {} {b,d} {b1, b2}
J1 {b,d} {} {} (b2)
J2 {b,d} {} {a,b} (b1)
J1 {a, b,d} {} {} ()
Table 1
Discussion:
Theoretical analysis on the other hand uses a high level illustration of the algorithm instead of an application.In this case it differs from the empirical method since here, the algorithm must be implemented and the implementation is very difficult as stated by (Steven, 2005). The theoretical approach distinguishes the running time as a function of the input size while the empirical method’s results may not specify the running time on other inputs not involved in the experiment.The theoretical approach does not account for all the inputs used therein.The theoretical approach allows for the evaluation of the speed of an algorithm irrespective of the software or hardware environment while the empirical approach must use the same hardware and software environment when comparing two algorithms.
The first step in writing the program involves creating several files of numerals that are to be used in the testing of the sorting method.The files should be of various sizes and hey should be made in order in the following ways, reverse order, partially in order and in random order.Keeping all the data into files is of great advantage because similar data can be used in testing the various sorting methods and this makes it easier to contrast their performance.
The program should be menu written and this is because it will be used to evaluate the various sorting methods.The other alternative entails reading a file of integers into a list or running one of the different sorting methods on the list in order to print the sorted or unsorted list.Subsequently, after all that has been done, the list is got rid off in order to allow for the starting with the same input data during later evaluation (Keith & Kennedy, 2001).
This can be achieved by arranging the program so that itb is able to read the data file every time sorting begins.Codes are then inserted into in order to facilitate the computation and printing of the CPU time, the number of comparison of keys and the number of tasks of list entries during sorting a list.Counting the number of comparisons and tasks needs setting up global variables every time a major contrasts is made. According to Flemming and Chris (2005) the contiguous list is packaged and developed to include the contiguous version of insertion sort and gathering statistics on the performance of contiguous insertion sort for later comparison with other methods.The next stage involves using the linked list to include the linked version of the insertion sort for further contrast with other methods.The contiguous list sorting demo should be able to allow for the different contiguous sorting packages to be used without a program change.
Conclusion:
Generally the project was successful, the only significant alterations to factor in the demonstration of the program applying linked lists it to alter the package list to the linked package list and the restructure the introduction illustrating the linked lists.
References:
Cooper, D. & Linda, T(2008). Engineering a Compiler. Salisbury, MD: Beacon Publishers.
Steven, S. (2005). Advanced Compiler and Implementation. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.
Matthew, H. (1997) Flow Analysis of Computer Programs. Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Keith, D. and Kennedy, J. (2001). Principles of Program Analysis. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Ill.
Flemming, N and Chris, H.(2005). Data Flow Analysis. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Sanyal, P. (2007). Iterative data flow analysis. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.