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Global deforestation literature review
Assignment 3: Literature Review
Deforestation
June 3, 2014
Deforestation
Concepts and Descriptions
Conceptually, deforestation is the removal of tree stands, which converts the land into other land uses or results into a bareness; for example, clearing of forestland to ranches, farms, or urban use (Durham & Painter, 1998). Similarly, United Nations Development Program (UNDP) considers deforestation as a massive clearing of the Earth’s forest, which often results to degradation and reduction of the quality of land. UNDP has reiterated that the current rate of global deforestation is alarming and calls for immediate and rigorous intervention. It warns that if no proper measure is put in place, the word risks losing its forest endowments in just a hundred years to come. Also, a report by Cardenas (2008), adds that the world is not just losing the forest cover, but a complex mixture of natural resources including the biodiversity, land productivity are subsequently deteriorating.
Global deforestation mainly affects the world’s temperate and tropical rainforest, which form the highest percentage of forest cover. The rate and extent of forest loss have proved beyond any reasonable doubt to be an urgent environmental problem. In this regard, the issue jeopardizes people’s livelihoods, intensifies global warming, and threatens the world’s plant and animal species (Lambin & Geist, 2006). Further, Andersen reports that, millions of the world population has a direct reliance on forest resources through small-scale agriculture, harvesting forest products, hunting, and gathering. Moreover, deforestation poses severe social problems, which sometimes results to violent conflicts as the different parties fight to tap the scarce resources.
Forest transformation and conversion are majorly due to human actions in relation to direct or indirect utilization, which over the years have continued to be profound (Boahene, 1998). Tress are cleared, fragmented, or converted to agricultural lands, infrastructure, and human settlements. Originally, as Lambin and Geist (2006) put it, more than half the land of United States, nearly all of Europe, three-quarters of Canada, and vast lands of the world were under forest. However, the coverage has been removed to a large extent by wood fuel extractions, industrial usage, and farming.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data on Forest and Deforestation
The Earth’s total area covered by the forest is over four billion hectares, which quantitatively gives an average per capita of 0.6 hectares (Vajpeyi, 2001). Though, only five countries in the world are rich in forest cover, which include Canada, Brazil, the Russian Federation, China, and United States of America. Their areas under the forest are more than half of the territories; however, the vastness in forest is because the countries have developed appropriate policies and laws to monitor forest product utilization (Lambin & Geist, 2006). Moreover, almost ten countries in the world lack areas covered by forest while additional 54 countries have less than 10% land covered (Margulis, 2004).
More than one and a half of the world forests are gone. Unfortunately, every year, additional 16 million hectares are lost, which worsen the natural state of the environment. UNDP estimates that just about 22% of the Earth’s old growth remains, especially the boreal forest of Canada and Alaska, boreal forest in Russia, the Guyana Shield, and the Amazon rainforest in the Northwest Basin. However, the anthropological influence in forest cover continues to expand and accelerate in the remaining undisturbed forest, which also result to declining quality of the forest remnants (Margulis, 2004).
Deforestation rate has shown signs of decreasing, nonetheless, still alarmingly high especially in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, which still rely on wood fuel as an energy source. Again, evidences show that, the tropical rainforest of South America and Africa are leading in the rates of deforestation (Lambin & Geist, 2006). According to Pearce (1994), agriculture was the main reason for deforestation in Brazil and Indonesia. Conversely, other uses or natural causes account for the loss, for example, in the 1990s, up to 13 million hectares of forest disappeared in the world due to non-agricultural factors. Also, since 2000, Australia has lost huge tracts of forest as a result of drought and forest fires (Costa & Pires, 2010).
Tropical deforestation is the most detrimental aspect of global change in environmental issues such as climate, hydrology, and global biogeochemical cycles (Boahene, 1998). Rainforest in the Amazon Basin is the largest single Tropical forest of the world, but sadly, the vast coverage in Brazil has the highest rate of forest loss of about 1.5-2.0 × 106 hectares per year (Costa & Pires, 2010).
Explicitly, according to Costa and Pires (2010), South America suffered the greatest net loss between the years of 2000 and 2010, by deforestation rate of 4.0 million hectares of cover lost every year. Africa followed closely with a rate of about 3.4 million hectares lost annually. In the same decade, Oceania had a net loss of 700000 ha every year, mainly because of the severe drought that struck Australia. On the other hand, in Central and North America, area covered by the forest in 2010 was estimated to be the same as in 2000. Fortunately, the forest cover in Europe expanded, though on a slower rate (700000 ha annually) in relation to 1990s (900000 ha annually). However, China experienced a net gain of greater than 2.2 million ha annually in the same period of 2000-2010. However, Southeast Asia and the Southern parts continued to register net losses in forest cover (Costa & Pires, 2010).
Causes of Deforestations
According to Kummer and Turner (1994), agriculture is the direct cause of deforestation, of which subsistence farming accounts for about 45% while commercial agriculture accounts for 32% of the global deforestation. Again, industrial logging for wood processing and as fuel energy is responsible for massive rate of deforestation (Sunderlin & Center for International Forestry Research, 1996). Globalization that leads to worldwide proliferations of ideas, commodities, capital, and labor coupled with the rise in urbanizations, especially in the developing countries has endangered the world forest cover. In Africa and Asia to be specific, the exacerbated rates of deforestation are due to overreliance on wood fuel as a source of household energy. Additionally, other natural causes such as drought, forest fires, pest, and diseases have also contributed to the loss of huge tracts of the Earth’s forest.
Effects of Deforestations
Deforestation destroys wildlife habitats, which leads to decline or extinction of the world’s biodiversity, for instance, about 137 species of animals, plants, and insects are lost in a single day because of rainforest deforestation; cumulatively, adding up to 50000 species per year. Additionally, soil loss through erosions and subsequent land degradations affects world food production (Vajpeyi, 2001).
Deforestation also causes an imbalance in the hydrological cycle due to increased moisture loss from bare soil surfaces. Sadly, deforestation is the main cause of climate change and global warming due to loss of carbon sequesters. Therefore, greenhouse gases, particularly Carbon dioxide accumulate in the atmosphere at high concentrations, making global warming inevitable. It is human beings who suffer the real repercussion as their livelihoods and welfare is tampered with. Furthermore, forest cover is a surrogate to economic value of a country, which when lost leads to economic losses (Costa & Pires, 2010).
In conclusion, forest offers invaluable economic services and direct marketable good and service to the various countries of the world. Deforestation is a worldwide issue that should be address at the country, regional, and global levels. Even though worldwide campaigns have been used to reduce the rates of forest loss, effort still needs to be put in place to avoid future impacts on human livelihoods, welfare, environment, and the global economy. Therefore, appropriate and effective mitigation measures must be put in place to curb unsustainable exploitation of forest resources, both at individual and industrial levels.
References
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Boahene, K. (1998). The Challenge of Deforestation In Tropical Africa: Reflections On Its Principal Causes, Consequences And Solutions. Land Degradation & Development, 9(3), 247-258.
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Costa, M. H., & Pires, G. F. (2010). Effects Of Amazon And Central Brazil Deforestation Scenarios On The Duration Of The Dry Season In The Arc Of Deforestation. International Journal of Climatology, 30(13), 1970-1979.
Durham, W. H., & Painter, M. (1998). The Social Causes of Environmental Destruction in Latin America. Ann Arbor: Univ. of Michigan Press.
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/” o “Edit this item” Kummer, D. M., & Turner, B. L. (1994). The Human Causes of Deforestation in Southeast Asia. BioScience, 44(5), 323.
Lambin, E. F., & Geist, H. (2006). Land-Use and Land-Cover Change: Local Processes and Global Impacts. Berlin: Springer.
Margulis, S. (2004). Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon. Washington, D.C: World Bank.
Sunderlin, W. D., Resosudarmo, I. A. P., & Center for International Forestry Research. (1996). Rates and Causes of Deforestation in Indonesia: Towards a Resolution of the Ambiguities. Jakarta, Indonesia: Centre for International Forestry Research.
United Nations Development Programme. (2000). World Resources 2000-2001: People and Ecosystems : the Fraying Web of Life. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Vajpeyi, D. K. (2001). Deforestation, Environment, and Sustainable Development: A Comparative Analysis. Westport, Conn : Praeger.
Global Corporate Strategy
Global Corporate Strategy
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Introduction
Question 1
Global strategy is an abbreviated word that covers three broad areas. These include global, international, and multinational strategies. Basically, these three areas denote the strategies which are aimed at enabling the organization attain its objectives and goals in regards to international expansion. When developing global strategy, it is helpful to identify between the three types of international expansions, which may arise from a firm’s capabilities, resources, and current international position (De Wit, and Meyer, 2010). When the firm is mainly fixated on its home fairs, then its strategies away from its home fairs might be viewed as international.
There are various implications associated with the three forms of global strategy. These include international strategy. This denotes the firm’s objective that is associated mainly to home market. A high and good competitive advantage, which is significant in the development of strategy is designed from the home market. Multinational strategy is the other aspect. A firm is associated with a number of markets, outside its home country. Global strategy is the other global strategy form. The firm treats the world like one big market and with one supply source having little variation. Additionally, competitive advantage is designed mainly on a global basis.
Various companies claim to be going global when all they are implying is that they are going internationally and beyond their home countries. There are various aspects why global strategy is important and may include the opportunities for profits and sales. This is based on the company’s perspective. This may be caused by poor profitability in the home market and the only option is to go international. There may be other options, which make it expand outside the home markets. For instance, oil companies may expand with a motive of securing resources or else called resource seeking. Several of the clothing companies are also said to expand with a motive of gaining efficiency seeking. Other companies may gain foreign companies to increase their market position versus competitors or else called strategic asset seeking.
The other aspect that global strategy is important is based on the customer perspective. International theory needs to lead to lower services and goods prices since the economies of scope and scale, which will stem from a higher global base. Additionally, there are customers, who wish to purchase good, which are global. The other aspect why global strategy is important based on international government organizations is the current dominant thinking that has to lead to down barriers to world trade while offering some degree of protection to various countries and industries. The other aspect why global strategy is important based on the international non-governmental organization perspective is the fact that some of the global strategies of various multinational organizations are taken to be suspicious. Such organizations have been alleged to exploit developing countries.
There are various benefits associated with global strategy. These benefits include economies of scale where the cost saving designed by a team when it shares transfers or activities competencies and capabilities from one part of the team to another. The other benefit is the economy of scale where the additional cost savings that happen when greater volume production offers the reduction of unit costs. The other benefit associated with global strategy is global brand recognition. The benefits derived from assuming a brand that is known throughout the world. The other benefit is satisfaction of global customer. This is based on the fact that multinational customers demanding similar products, quality and service at several locations around the world. The other benefit is minimal labor and other input costs.
In the 1980 and 1990 big oil reputation was not that good. Exposes of malpractices with regards to the human rights, environment, conflicts, and local communities were rife. Despite this, various American firms decided to embark on a makeover as a way of wining placate enemies and friends. This was not done through the proverbial application of philanthropy and public relations, but also by actively advertising corporate social responsibility. This concept mainly focuses on two ideas. First, corporation need to go clear of both minimalists standards laid in place in law and the piecemeal intervention, which characterize philanthropy by adopting a scope of voluntary initiatives aimed at reducing malpractice and improving heir environmental, social and human rights performance and impacts. Secondly, modern, well-run companies need to be very responsive to the concerns regarding the multiple stakeholders and aspects regarding management, which regards reputation and risk management and organizational learning.
Over the last ten years, BP has gained much acclaim and support for the proactive stance regarding environmental issues, most remarkably for its position regarding climate change and efforts to control emission regarding greenhouse gases. Despite heated debates regarding global environmental issues and corporate responsibilities with that respect, the last ten years has seen the emergence of a potentially much broader and a wider social agenda, many times framed with the concepts regarding corporate social responsibility or corporate citizenship. CSR is said to be the aspect where businesses view and uphold the society rather than the broader aspect of aiming
After the merger with Amoco in 1998, BP entered the scene amongst the world’s top three oil firms. Judging in regards to merit like market capitalization, revenue, and expenses, BP was in 2000 was left only by the other oil majors like shell and ExxonMobil. BP also is ranked third in regards to gas and oil reserves amounting to about 15.2 billion oil barrels equivalent. The products of BP are said to be in sale in almost 100 countries and has good established operation in about six continents. Briefly, BP has received attention, which is moderately negative regarding corporate social responsibility in comparison to the other companies like Shell. BP has in fact received growing recognition in regards to its positive contribution regarding corporate social responsibility through demonstrating leadership and in various ways acting like a catalyst for transformation in the oil industry in whole.
Corporate governance denotes the system of structure, duties, rights, and obligations by which corporation are controlled and directed. The governance structure denotes the distribution of responsibilities and rights among diverse participants in the corporation and states the procedure and rules for building decision in the corporate affairs. Governance offers the structure by which corporations pursue and set their objectives, while dazzling the context regarding regulatory, social and market environment. Governance is a method used for monitoring policies, actions, and decision of corporations. Governance regards the alignment of interests between the stakeholders (De Wit, and Meyer, 2010). There is renewed interest regarding corporate governance practices in current corporations, mainly in regards to accountability, as the high-profile fall of various corporations in 2001-2002, mainly as a result of fraud and then followed by the current financial crisis in 2008. Corporate scandals regarding several forms have maintained political and public interests regarding regulation of corporate governance.
Like in any industry, the commitment of large oil companies in regards to corporate social responsibility could be judged, to various extents, by their acceptance of reporting practices, codes of conduct, and interaction with important CSR institutions. The aftermath that happened in 1995, made Shell prove to be a first leader by revising its 1976 general business principles statement by including reference to human rights and sustainability. The other oil chief followed suit and have their own firm codes of conduct. Principles regarding human rights and security are mainly relevant to the oil industry. Many of the oil chiefs currently produce CSR or annual sustainability reports. Shell was the first firm in the oil industry to produce this report, which considered community and social responsibility. The aspect of BP of revealing a website where people could review all its reports is an aspect that shows their communication regarding corporate social responsibility.
Shell and BP have an organized way of corporate governance. This is aimed at the retention and protection of human rights an aspect that has been closely monitored. They have been handling their issues in a more specific way as a way even protecting the environment. This is also in regards to CSR where both companies have taken up the aspect of producing CSR reports. This is an aspect that brings credibility as it will show how far they have upheld the issue of human rights and environmental protection.
The pressure on firms to deliver increased efficiency and operational effectiveness is escalating. A period of higher prices, prolonged supply lines and investments in a diversified and expanded infrastructure is adding vital additional costs to the value chain. At similar time, firms can expect prolonged and indeed, higher resistance to costs that are passed on to end-users. Companies are supposed to view various strategies like financial, technological, fiscal, and operational as a way of improving efficiency. Basing on operation aspect, firms should minimize asset security risk, performance availability, serviceability, restoration and reliability after breakdown.
Like a mature company, energy firms should attain enhanced profitability, in larger parts, by best disciplined costs and class performance as market demand is high to their products, but with no fluctuation. Many product price levels are high currently, but management groups know that product price term is cyclical. In the look of changing cyclical and demand pricing, operating an efficient and smooth business, and squeezing costs, is critical. The consolidation of firms has been attained through acquisition and mergers. Aging infrastructure needs to be replaced or upgraded. The compliance costs associated with environmental remediation and enhanced safety standards have trimmed already thin margins. The aspect of CSR is the notion that leads and drives to performance. Attaining operational effectiveness is an aspect that starts from proper CSR practices (Johnson, Scholes, and Whittington, 2005).
Businesses often meet strong competition for capacity in the workforce. Though it is hard to find the finest employees for your firm, it can be even harder to keep them involved so they do not pursue opportunities in another place. The reason most regularly given by employees for parting their jobs is because they are disengaged or detached from their managers or work. Skilled workers basically will not endure to work for a ruthless boss or in poor situations. To preserve employees you must know what is essential to them and have them attached to their work. Related or engaged personnel will be more committed and devoted to the business. Retaining skillful employees is a substantial issue for an industry since a high rate of worker turnover outcomes in a loss of awareness and abilities and can be very exclusive. The cost of dropping an employee involves aspects of lost efficiency and employment effort, you will now have made a substantial investment both money and time in attracting, selecting, training, developing, recruiting, inducting, monitoring, training, mentoring, and rewarding these personnel.
The resulting factors may affect an employee’s verdict to leave their job including poor management, substandard remuneration, problems with instant supervisors or personality dissimilarities, and partial work-life equilibrium. There are various factors that make employees stay in their job including, the work itself or being involved in the work, respectable leadership, and associations with immediate administrators, recognition, and pay. BP has been in the spotlight for paying its employees in more better and in a distinguished aspect. This is an aspect that has made it retain its distinguished workers. This is also an aspect that has made BP pay its employees better payment. BP has also tried to retain its best workers by also looking at the potential and skilled workers who have worked well. This is done through rewarding its best performing workers an aspect that indicates that they motivates their employees so that they can retain them.
Shell has on the other aspect adopted the aspect of retaining its skilled workers. This is because these employees have led to the success of the company. This company has gone ahead to maintain associations with immediate administrators, recognition, and pay as a way of making sure that its employees feel safe and secure. This is an aspect that leads to employees maintaining their work and also increases their performance. Just like BP, Shell has also gone ahead to motivate its employees. This is done through compensation for the most outstanding employee an aspect that leads to competition and thus improvement of performance. Retaining their employees is an aspect that these two major oil companies strive to achieve and in greater aspects as it makes possible to maintain and add the performance of the company.
Question 2
Mergers and acquisitions or M&A are both corporate strategy aspects, management and corporate finance associated with the selling, buying, dividing and combination of various companies and related entities, which can aid an enterprise develop rapidly in its region or locality of origin, or a firsthand field or fresh location, without producing a subsidiary, other child aspects or use of a joint venture (Lynch, 2006). Mergers and acquisitions action can be denoted as a kind of restructuring in that they end in some entity restructuring with the purpose to provide progress or positive value. Consolidation of a firm or sector arises when prevalent M&A activity focuses the resources of many minor firms into a few bigger ones, such as arose with the automotive industry from 1910 to 1940.
The difference among a merger and an acquisition has become gradually blurred in various esteems mainly in terms of the decisive economic outcome, while it has not entirely disappeared in all conditions. From a lawful point of outlook, a merger is a permissible consolidation of two firms to one entity, while an acquisition arises when one firm takes over another and utterly establishes themself as the new proprietor in which case the aim company still survives as an independent legal body controlled by the buyer. Any structure can end in the economic and financial association of the two entities. Practically, a contract which is an acquisition for legal drives may be politely called a merger of equals when both CEOs approve that linking together is in the greatest interest of both firms, while when the agreement is unfavorable that is, when the marked firm do not want to be obtained it is practically always viewed as an acquisition.
BP is one company that is seen as one of the biggest as a result of its merger with Amoco Corporation of US in 1998. BP was mainly registered as the Anglo-Persian corporation in 1909 April 14, but renamed as Anglo-Iranian company in 1935. Later in 1954, it changed its name to BP. After its merger with Amoco in 1998, it changed its name to BP Amoco before it assumed BP PLC in 2000. The company in 1977 saw its journey to private life as some of its shares were sold to the public where in 1980 its remaining is shares were entirely sold to private ownership. There are various advantages associated with mergers and acquisition and the chief aspect is that the synergy that gives a surplus power, which enables cost efficiency and increased performance. When two companies work together they support each other and the firm stands to gain tremendously in regards to profits with regards to work performance and financial gains (Mintzberg, Ahlstrand, and Lampel, 1998).
The other advantage with M&A is cost efficiency. This is attributed by the fact that any merger indeed advances the purchasing power because there is increased negotiation in regards to bulk orders. Also the reduction of staff ensures that there is cost cutting and increased profit margins of the firm. Despite this, increased volume production leads to reduced production costs per unit, which eventually results to increased economies of scale. When in a merger it is easier to maintain a competitive edge as there are many strategies and issues, which could be well known and gained by combination of talents and resources of two or more firms. The other advantage is that when two firms combine, there is enhanced and strengthened business network through improved market reach. This leads to new sales prospects and new areas to discover the possibility of their company. M&A are also said to be advantageous as they lead to increased market power, which then limits tough market competition severity. These are some of the advantages that BP enjoys after its merger with Amoco. After the merger with Amoco in 1998, BP entered the scene amongst the world’s top three oil firms. Judging in regards to merit like market capitalization, revenue, and expenses, BP was in 2000 was left only by the other oil majors like shell and ExxonMobil. BP also is ranked third in regards to gas and oil reserves amounting to about 15.2 billion oil barrels equivalent. The products of BP are said to be in sale in almost 100 countries and has good established operation in about six continents.
Question 3
The main aim of better management is the provision of services to the society in a more efficient, appropriate, equitable, and sustainable way. This is only attained if the chief resources regarding service provision like human resources, hardware, finances, and process aspects regarding the delivery of services are converged together to a service delivery point and well synchronized (Lynch, 2006). Management and leadership are significant for the delivery of services. The two are similar in various aspects, but they involve different kinds of skills, outlook, and behaviors. Good managers are said to struggle to become good leaders and better leaders, need management abilities to be effective. Leaders are said to have a vision regarding what could be achieved and then talk this others and advances strategies for achieving the vision.
Managers certify that the obtainable resources are effectively organized and smeared to give the best results. Managers must at all times try to achieve these aspects in regards to the laid down objectives. There are various attributes that a leader should have including charismatic, have the ability to influence to work jointly for a mutual cause, have logic of mission, are decisive, have the ability to create a solution amidst a problem. There are various qualities that managers should possess including good organizational skills, clarity of tasks and purpose, ability to expect results and communicate tasks, ability to negotiate several regulatory and administrative processes, and good delegation skills.
BP in many years has claimed publicly that it was focused on safety. After a closer look in to the company, it was identified that it was focused on cost cutting, but at the outlay of safety. There are also public aspects like the Mexican Gulf accident, which have made the management of BP CEO at stake. There are various aspects that he needs to do so that all these aspects will not affect their performance in the market. There are various aspects that Bob the CEO of BP needs to undertake and some of the big objectives that they have include the aspect of addressing safety, rebuilding trust in the firm, and focusing on creation of value.
Conclusion
There are various implications associated with the three forms of global strategy. These include international strategy. This denotes the firm’s objective that is associated mainly to home market. A high and good competitive advantage, which is significant in the development of strategy, is designed from the home market. Multinational strategy is the other aspect. A firm is associated with a number of markets, outside its home country. Global strategy is the other global strategy form. The firm treats the world like one big market and with one supply source having little variation. Additionally, competitive advantage is designed mainly on a global basis. Companies and firms need to effectively work on their global strategy as a way of attaining excellence. CSR is said to be the aspect where businesses view and uphold the society rather than the broader aspect of aiming. CSR is an aspect that needs to be effectively tried by all firms as it indicates the competitive advantage strategy laid down by firms.
References
De Wit, B. and Meyer, R. (2010) – Strategy Process, Content, and Context International Perspective, 4th Edition, Thomson Learning
Johnson, G., Scholes, K. and Whittington, R. (2005) Exploring Corporate Strategy: Text and Cases, 7th Edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall.
Lynch, R. (2006) Corporate Strategy, Fourth Edition, Financial Times Prentice Hall.
Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B. and Lampel, J. (1998) Strategy Safari, Financial Times Prentice Hall
Global Community Part II
Global Community Part II
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Global Community Part II
South Africa constitutes one of the countries whose economies are assuming an elevated niche in the global economy. Currently, it assumes one of the top ten positions in the global stock market. With regard to wealth and standards of living, it is among the top fifty countries on a global scale. However, there are inherent disparities in its economic growth and development. Some of its areas are under developed, impoverished and suffer immensely from the negative implications of HIV/AIDS. The major areas that have experienced persistent growth in South Africa include Johannesburg, Port Elizabeth, Durban and Cape Town.
Compared to the rest of the population, the Black population faces more challenges and is the most affected by HIV and AIDS. This is attributed to the lengthy period of social and political oppression that was experienced during apartheid. Notably, relative conditions left a significant 80% of the Black populations vulnerable to AIDS infection and without any means to either treat or prevent the disease. Population studies indicate that the Blacks grapple with wide ranging social problems such as unemployment, lack of education and poverty. Close to 60% of the South African population resides in towns or urban regions while the remaining 40% reside in rural areas. Both regions have areas that are affected by poverty and whose populations lack electricity, clean water, access to healthcare and other social amenities that are instrumental in enhancing their holistic wellbeing.
According to CIA (2000), South Africa has the highest rate of AIDS related deaths and is the second highest with respect to the rate of individuals living with AIDS. This implies that an estimated 350,000 individuals die from AIDS in the country each year. Further, close to 5.7 million are currently living with this disease. Notably, the segment of the population that is sexually active is at most risk of contacting the disease. The individuals that are aged between 15 and forty nine years are the most affected and have an infection rate of a significant 18%. Statistical evidence indicates that pregnant women are at a higher risk of being infected.
Currently, the rate of infection in this segment of the population is close to 29%. The high rates are attributable to the attitudes that the population hold towards gender roles and sexuality. The men are very chauvinistic and populations generally hold patriarchy in high regard. Monogamy is hardly practiced in the country (Benatar, 2004). Usually, men leave for lengthy period of time and demand for their spousal rights upon return. This increases the risk of women contracting the disease. Further, unmarried men are sexually aggressive and often believe they have a right to be given sexual favors from any woman at any time. Reportedly, the women that make efforts to resist are often raped (Nattrass, 2004).
Millennium Development Goals constitute a list of distinct goals that were developed by the United Nations in a bid to address and combat various health as well as social disparities that the global population is currently grappling with. The sixth goal of the Millennium goals focuses on combating HIV/AIDS. The goal constitutes two targets that include halting and reversing the spread of HIV/AIDS by 2015 and attaining Universal access to HIV/AIDS treatment by 2010. Statistical evidence indicates that the number of infections has decreased significantly. However, the number of AIDS related deaths continues to soar. Current trends indicate that while new infections have decreased, the incidences have not and HIV/AIDS continues to affect a significant percentage of the population. It is therefore unlikely that the Millennium Development Goals in this regard would be successful.
The efforts that are geared towards combating HIV/AIDS in South Africa have been compounded by various challenges. Benatar (2004) indicates that stigmatization is one of the problems that have undermined the efforts to fight HIV/AIDS. This constitutes preexisting prejudices as well as stereotypes that perceive the victims as being immoral. They are blamed for their position and considered to be responsible for their infection. In most cases, AIDS is considered a justified punishment for their presumed immoral ways. The inherent prejudices and biases continue to hurt the victims and enhance the spread of the disease. Regardless of the fact that the Millennium Development Goals are unlikely to be met, the entire healthcare fraternity needs to continue making efforts to prevent the spread of the disease in the region. To attain optimal output, relative efforts need to be pursued at each level.
At the primary level, Gilbert and Walker (2002) affirm that the government of South Africa has initiated viable plans that are also outlined in its national Strategic Plan. Specific objectives entail reducing AIDS incidence by a significant 50% by 2011 and providing access to antiretroviral therapy to the facets of the population that are eligible. Notably, these goals are in line with the provisions of the MDGs. Relative efforts are also being furthered by various non profit making organizations that have established operations in the region. Specifically, these undertake education and awareness creation in an attempt to inform the public about important preventive measures. Women are also taught how to negotiate for power as well as control that enables them to face their abusive men (Gilbert & Walker, 2002).
At this primary level, awareness creation strategies place great emphasis on the ABC strategy. In particular, populations are encouraged to abstain from sexual relations until they get in marriage; to maintain faithfulnesses in marriage and to use condoms whenever they get themselves in a compromising situation. The populations are also encouraged to reduce the number of sexual partners that they have. This has been coupled by government initiatives of availing sufficient condoms for the population. Efforts have also been undertaken to prevent TB infections that increase the vulnerability of the affected individuals to opportunistic infections (Gilbert & Walker, 2002).
The biggest challenge that efforts at this level are facing pertains to the difficulty in changing behaviors especially for those already with the disease or those that are at risk of contracting the disease. Seemingly, populations are reluctant to change because of a lack of a vested interest in the respective change. Nonetheless, education and awareness creation efforts would probably yield results after a certain period of time. Also, relative efforts have been compounded by cultural stereotypes that promote unacceptable behavior. The population holds the cultural practices and beliefs in high regard and is reluctant to change. Finally, transportation problems have made it difficult for the personnel to effectively penetrate the interior that comprises of the most affected percentage of the population.
Efforts related to the secondary level of prevention need to focus on detecting the disease in a timely manner and taking practical efforts to prevent its transmission. Individuals in this regard are encouraged to visit voluntary counseling and testing centers in order to undergo tests. It can not be disputed that early detection is important because it makes management of the disease easier. The affected individuals at this point need to be informed about the importance of assuming low risk behaviors. They should be provided with vital information regarding the nature of this disease and the importance of retarding its further progression (Pettifor, Measham, Rees & Padian, 2004).
One of the challenges facing this level pertains to a lack of desire by the population to change its behaviors. In addition, limited health facilities especially in the rural areas have made it difficult for a significant percentage of the population to access ART. This is further compounded by poverty negative cultural practices and low levels of literacy.
The tertiary level should then place great emphasis on addressing the far reaching implications of the disease. The main aim of this is to enhance the living potential of the victims. Seemingly, opportunistic infections pose the greatest challenge to relative efforts. Most efforts are directed at the patients, care partners and healthcare professionals that interact with the affected individual in different ways. Furthermore, the government has put in place distinct measures geared towards rehabilitating the children that are orphaned by the disease. In most instances, these children tend to suffer detrimentally especially considering that the society is very hostile.
The challenges that are faced at level stem from the social as well as economic status of the affected individuals. The individuals with access to important social amenities are usually in a better position to prevent the opportunities infections than their counterparts. Comparatively, the populations in the rural areas suffer the most because of lack of access to important social amenities. Another challenge pertains to the high incidences of poverty. In this respect, poverty has made it difficult for the affected individual to maintain healthy lifestyles. Some are compelled by the poor conditions to engage in high risk behaviors such as prostitution. Further, most of them in the rural areas can not access antiretroviral drugs because of poor transportation systems.
Nurses have various responsibilities to the individuals that suffer from HIV/AIDS both on the local and global level. At the local level, nurses can educate the South Africa locals about the dismal future of those infected with the disease. The nurses that are able to travel to South Africa should individually participate in the efforts by providing the needed expertise. Such experiences would also be instrumental in hanging the practices of the nurses abroad. Also, nurses can engage in initiating change by setting best examples. Just like transformational leaders, they can motivate and encourage the affected individuals to assume best practices that can enable them to reduce the risk of infection. Sustainable results in this regard can be attained if they set examples by practicing health living and helping the infected individuals. Acting as role models would enable them to inspire various facets of the local and global populations that have been infected or affected. AIDS is a killer disease that will probably not be cured in the near future. For this reason, nurses should take the initiative to personally involve themselves in prevention efforts in a bid to reduce infection rates as well as incidences.
References
Benatar, S. (2004). Health care reform and the crisis of HIV and AIDS in South Africa. The New England Journal of Medicine, 351 (1), 81-92.
CIA. (2010). World Fact Book. Retrieved Feb. 5, 2011 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html
Gilbert, L. & Walker, L. (2002). Treading the path of least resistance: HIV/AIDS and social inequalities- A South African case study. Social Science Medicine, 54, 1093-1110.
Nattrass, N. (2004). The moral economy of AIDS in South Africa. Cambridge: University Press.
Pettifor, A., Measham, D., Rees, H & Padian, N. (2004). Sexual power and HIV risk, South Africa. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10 (11), 1996-2004