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The discovery in the year 1953 of the dual helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by Francis Crick and James Watson created a milestone in the account of science and resulted in contemporary molecular biology, which is majorly concerned with comprehending how genetic factors control the biochemical actions within cells. The discovery of the shape of the DNA produced groundbreaking understandings into the protein synthesis and genetic code. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, it aided to yield novel and great scientific practices, especially genetic engineering, recombinant DNA research, monoclonal antibodies, and rapid gene sequencing techniques on which nowadays multi-billion dollar biotechnology business is established. Great current progresses in science, to be precise the mapping of the human genome, genetic fingerprinting and contemporary forensics, and the promise, yet unsatisfied, of gene psychotherapy, all have their roots in Crick and Watson’s brilliant work. The double helix’s idea has not only remodeled biology, but it also has to turn out to be a cultural representation, symbolized in visual art, sculpture, toys, and jewelry.
Chargaff’s rules articulates that the DNA from whichever species of whichever being ought to have a 1:1 stoichiometric ratio of purine and pyrimidine bases and, more precisely, that the quantity of guanine need to be equivalent to cytosine and the quantity of adenine need to be equivalent to thymine. This arrangement is found in all strands of the DNA. The Chargaff’s rules were discovered by Austrian native chemist Erwin Chargaff in the late 1940s. Erwin Chargaff projected two significant rules in his days, which were applicably termed Chargaff’s rules. The main and greatest known accomplishment was to illustrate that in natural DNA, the quantity of guanine entities is equivalent to the number of cytosine entities, and the quantity of adenine entities equivalents the number of thymine entities.
Frederick Griffith was reviewing Streptococcus pneumoniae, a bacterium that passes on a disease to mammals. He used two strains of the Streptococcus pneumoniae, a harmless R (Rough) strain, and a virulent S (Smooth) strain to show the transfer of genetic material. The R strain, which does not have the shielding capsule, is overpowered by the host’s immune system, while the S strain is bounded by a polysaccharide capsule, which shields it from the host’s immune system. In 1952, Martha Chase and Alfred Hershey placed this uncertainty to rest. They convincingly proved that DNA is the hereditary material. Chase and Hershey put into practice the T2 bacteriophage, a virus that infects bacteria, to demonstrate this fact. A virus is principally DNA (or RNA) bounded by a protein covering. To replicate, a virus needs to infect a cell and use the host cell’s mechanism to produce several viruses, a replicative development identified as the lytic cycle.
Cancer is basically an illness of mitosis. The typical checkpoints controlling mitosis are overridden or ignored by the cancer cell. Cancer starts when a particular cell is changed or transformed from an ordinary cell to a cancer cell. Faults in mitosis result in the creation of daughter cells with too few or too many chromosomes, a feature called aneuploidy. Almost all aneuploidies that result due to faults in meiosis or in the course of early embryonic development are fatal, with the distinguished exemption of trisomy 21 in humans. Mitotic mistakes can activate the triggering of p53. Errors in cell division normally lead to triggering of the cancer suppressor protein p53, which inline prompts a cell cycle apoptosis or senescence.
Turner syndrome is caused when the condition outcomes from monosomy X. The chromosomal disorder happens as an unsystematic occurrence during the development of generative cells, including eggs and sperm in the pretentious individual’s parent. A cell division mistake known as nondisjunction can predict outcomes in reproductive cells with an irregular quantity of chromosomes. Mistakes can happen all through meiosis generating gametes with missing or an extra chromosome. The results of this subsequent fertilization rely on the chromosomes that are affected. Frequently the embryo is not feasible, but several of these mistakes can result in sex chromosome disorders or trisomy disorders.
Polyploidy is the existence in cells of more than a particular duo of each chromosome. It may be the consequence of an unprompted increase of a plant’s hereditary material or by hybridization and is very common in domesticated plants. This condition comes as a result of the complete nondisjunction of chromosomes in the course of meiosis or mitosis. It is more common in crops and has been, in reality, the main source of speciation in the angiosperms. Principally significant is allopolyploid, which implicates the replication of genetic material in a hybrid plan.
Article Review Summary
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Article Review
Bradner, K., & Schiraldi, V. N. (2020). Racial inequities in New York parole supervision. Columbia University, Justice Lab. 1-24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-f4sf-0s28.
Summary
The article “Racial Inequities in New York Parole Supervision” by Bradner & Schiraldi (2020) explores the racial and ethnic inequities in practices of parole supervision in New York. The text shows that the scope and conditions surrounding New York’s parole supervision practices have substantial impacts on individuals serving sentences. Specifically, the conditions relating to parole supervision in New York are reported to hinder the freedom of offenders, encourage incarceration, and can deter the community reintegration process necessary for successful reentry after leaving prison. Therefore, the article strives to examine the racial and ethnic inequities on parole violations and revocation in New York, and also provide further context through the review of existing studies on inequalities that exist in supervision practices countrywide.
Focusing on the three points mentioned above, the report outlines the findings by Justice Lab analysis that demonstrate that New York’s people of color go through disparate burdens at all these points. As such, the report indicates that Black and Latinx people are more prone to parole supervision compared to white people, and supervision disparities are worse in men than women on a national scale. It is also evident that the detainment of black and Latinx people for parole in the New York City jails is at a higher rate unlike the rate of white people, the rates of blacks are higher the those of Latinx people. Supervision disparities for males are reported to be at a higher rate compared to men where the rates of men from the colored background are more likely to experience supervision disparities for prison incarceration in the New York City State prisons. The research finding for the article shows that people of color in New York are exposed to disparate outcomes at a profoundly higher level compared to the reported national averages. From the review of existing research, the article found that being on parole for a longer duration increasingly puts people of color at a disadvantage, and as such, they are more likely to be unfairly charged with violations as well as receive severer punishments.
As such, the report recommends several approaches to aid in reforms on the parole system to prevent or mitigate disparities relating to parole supervision in the New York City State prisons. Notably, policy change is the key recommendation that is believed to trigger positive effects for Black and brown people. The article cited the Less Is More Act which is intended to enact the proposed policy recommendation. More importantly, the article deduced that there is high feasibility on parole reforms in New York that would significantly address the sources of racial and ethnic disparities that are deeply rooted in the City’s parole supervision. As such, legislative actions should be taken to mitigate the challenges associated with discrepancies in parole supervision that directly affects the lives of the violators and the community at large. The report shows that Black and brown people as well as the already underserved communities will continue to suffer from the disparities in parole supervision if the policy changes fail to take place.
Discussion
The article conducts in-depth research on the conditions of parole supervision and the possible impacts on the people of color and the already vulnerable underserved communities in the New York City State prisons. The article utilizes extensive and reliable sources of data to support their findings and make feasible recommendations. From the report findings, the people of color are disproportionately more likely to experience violation charges and receive harsher punishment due to the fact that they remain on parole for longer, unlike the white people (Bradner & Schiraldi, 2020). Furthermore, there is a constant increase in the number of people under parole supervision countrywide in the past years, with a reduction in probation populations and the number of individuals under community corrections supervision. The high number of persons under parole supervision increases the possibilities of disparities within the system, and often, the most disadvantaged groups are the people of color. Therefore, the people of color in New York State prisons are highly predisposed to be under parole supervision, jailed pending violation hearing, and to be incarcerated for technical violation more that the white people.
The fact that people on parole are expected to adhere to certain rules or conditions such as dissociating with people with criminal records and avoiding substance abuse means that failure to adhere will result in re-incarceration, an offense referred to as technical violation. Re-incarceration can result in severe punishment such as sentencing to an extended time in state prison. Therefore, the article deduced that people of color are more likely to be charged for technical violations as a result of the existing racial and ethnic disparities in the parole supervisions, particularly in New York (Bradner & Schiraldi, 2020). The rules and conditions set for parole supervision are the notable aspects that encourage the persistence of disparities since they obstruct the people under supervision and their families from living normal lives. For instance, anyone who is under supervision cannot engage freely with the community due to conditions such as not being allowed to live with supportive family or friends with criminal records or work overnight in well-paying jobs because they are not allowed to violate curfew hours. All these pose a lot of difficulties in rehabilitating offenders towards re-entering society after a prison sentence.
Furthermore, the existing racial and ethnic discrimination on the people of color along with conditions of parole supervision are contributing aspects that worsen systemic racial inequities. For instance, New York is reported to have lower parole supervision rates countrywide but it has the highest rate of re-incarceration (Bradner & Schiraldi, 2020). The report utilizes reliable statistics from credible sources to show that the people of color constitute the largest population of persons on parole and are being held for new charges. This relates to the fact that a larger population of the Black and brown communities are prone to violence, increasing the risk of being incarcerated and re-incarcerated. Therefore, the presence of disparities in parole supervision will mean that most people who will be charged with technical violations are people of color. Furthermore, the longer one is under parole supervision means they are likely to violate parole rules, and as such, increases the risk of being re-incarcerated. It is, therefore, clear that parole supervision practices have profound impacts on offenders and people within their surroundings, and especially people of color and already-vulnerable underserved communities. As such, the recommendations suggested in the article regarding the need for policy reforms on the parole system in New York will bring positive impacts and even justice to the disadvantaged population.
References
Bradner, K., & Schiraldi, V. N. (2020). Racial inequities in New York parole supervision. Columbia University, Justice Lab. 1-24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7916/d8-f4sf-0s28.
Article Review on Mental
Article Review on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Humanitarian Emergencies
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Article Review on Mental Health and Psychosocial Support in Humanitarian Emergencies
The article under review titled “Identifying best practice for the supervision of mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian emergencies: a Delphi study” was authored by various individuals, including Aine Travers, Nadeen Abujaber, Kelly McBride, Pia Tingsted Blum, Nana Wiedemann, and Frederique Vallieres. The article was published in the International Journal of Mental Health Systems on 7th February 2022. This text answers various questions concerning the article, ranging from the mental health illness symptoms, impact, treatment, geographical location, participants region, intervention programs, cost, and success of the program in detail. Further, it includes information on numerical data, limitations of the study, program importance, and recommendations to improve global health.
Mental health illness, also known as a mental health disorder, comprises various mental health conditions that affect behavior, thinking and mood. Common examples of mental illness include anxiety disorders, depression, eating disorders, schizophrenia, and addictive behaviors. While many people occasionally suffer mental health concerns, it becomes an issue of concern when symptoms affect a person’s function and cause them frequent stress (Sin, Galeazzi, McGregor, Collom, Taylor, Barrett, & Henderson, 2020). Some of the common signs and symptoms of mental health illness include suicidal thinking, feeling sad, excessive anger or violence, confused thinking, change in sex drive, extreme fear, change in sex drive, withdrawal from activities and friends, changes in feeding habits, and general tiredness. Other signs and symptoms of mental illness pertain to hallucinations and paranoia, drug and substance abuse, and difficulties relating to people and situations. Mental health illness is rife in the United States, with 52.9 million adults (1 in 5) living with the illness in 2020. The degree of severity of mental illness ranges from mild, moderate to severe. Mental health affects global health because it breeds other problems to do with social and economic deprivation. It also paves way for other problems such as discrimination. Mental health also impacts problems such as alcohol and substance abuse and gender-based violence. One of the most common treatments for mental illness is counseling or psychotherapy. It involves the patient taking a professional about their problems in what is referred to as talk therapy. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is one of the most effective treatments for mental illnesses.
The geographical area that is directly affected in this article includes Europe, Africa, North America, Asia, Australia, and South America. The participants of the study were selected from various countries, including Australia, Uganda, Bangladesh, Spain, Belgium, Sweden, Bolivia, Nigeria, Herzegovina, the Netherlands, Malaysia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Malaysia, Liberia, Lebanon, Jordan, Kenya, the USA, Ecuador, Ethiopia, Egypt, Finland, Germany, France, Ireland, Iceland, and Italy (Travers, Abujaber, McBride, Tingsted Blum, Wiedemann, & Vallières, 2022). In this specific study a total number of 72 individuals agreed to participate in the study. Of these, 48 individuals took part in round 1 and only those that took part in round 2 could take part in round 2. A total of 37 participants completed both rounds. The intervention being used in the study was both qualitative and quantitative in nature. The program intervention is known as the Delphi method. It was used to collect stakeholders’ views on supervision of mental health and psychological support services (MHPSS) supervision in humanitarian settings. The Delphi method was selected as a recognized intervention for reaching consensus among the stakeholders. The 28 sets of statements were presented in more than two rounds with the purpose of reducing responses in each round. The cost of the program (Delphi method) is not mentioned. The program employed in the study was successful as it provided significant information in the development of guidance in supervision of mental health and psychosocial services in humanitarian provision settings. The study findings pointed to the importance of having confidential space for mental health supervision. The program success is determined by uptake of study recommendations, including the importance of not compromising on confidentiality during supervision that take place in challenging situations. In essence, unique emergency setting of humanitarian provision should always conform to the best practice and the realities of the changing environments. Confidentiality, an important element of supervision, should be at the centre of service provision. The researchers note that statement five, which attained a score of 69% in the first round, increased to 76% in round two. Similarly, statements pertaining to leaving space for discussions at the end of each session attained consensus in the second round (86%) compared to round 1 (72%). This was an indication that none of the participants objected the idea of seeking feedback from supervisors.
Some of the limitations which if changed would impact the program result directly has to do with the participants’ personal information. Minimal information relating to their level of experience working in humanitarian settings was gathered. Such information would have been more helpful in the interpretation of the study. This program is important in showing the importance of supportive supervision in improving worker well-being and resilience in humanitarian settings. The program emphasizes the need to prioritize this area as it remains largely under untapped and under-prioritized. If cost was not an issue, one of the ways that could be used to improve the program for better global health is policy enactment declaring mental illness a national disaster in the geographical areas of interest. Additionally, it would help if the policy made it mandatory for supervisor follow-up on all individuals battling a mental health issue. Individuals that work in humanitarian emergency settings are exposed to tough situations that expose them to mental health problems such as depression, anxiety and even suicidal ideation. It is therefore imperative that we provide them with all the psychosocial support they might needs. In my learning institutions, the school provides psychosocial support services for students. Most students are familiar with the counseling program and are encouraged to seek help in various matters ranging from addiction counseling to poor performance issues.
In closing, this article delves on the important problem of mental health that has is slowly becoming a menace to society. A huge population is struggling with mental health illnesses ranging from depression, anxiety, among others. The article centers on the role of supportive supervision in improving well being and worker resilience particularly in humanitarian emergency settings. The study employed Delphi consensus-methodology to assess agreement levels in 48 individuals on various ideas relating to supervision in humanitarian settings.
References
Sin, J., Galeazzi, G., McGregor, E., Collom, J., Taylor, A., Barrett, B., & Henderson, C. (2020). Digital interventions for screening and treating common mental disorders or symptoms of common mental illness in adults: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of medical Internet research, 22(9), e20581.
Travers, Á., Abujaber, N., McBride, K. A., Tingsted Blum, P., Wiedemann, N., & Vallières, F. (2022). A Delphi study identifies best practice for the supervision of mental health and psychosocial support in humanitarian emergencies. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 16(1), 1-10.