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Things Fall Apart
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Things Fall Apart
Chinua Achebe was a world-renowned novelist, critic, poet, and professor. Throughout his literary career that spanned decades, he wrote many works that earned critical acclaim. His first novel ‘Things Fall Apart’ is considered to be one of the best works of his career and is his most famous piece of work. The book was released in 1958 and to date remains the most widely read book in African literature. Chinua started with the intention to study medicine at the university but changed his major to English literature (Chinua, p.35). It was during this time in university that he began to write stories. He has other novels under his belt such as ‘Anthills of the Savannah’ (1987), ‘A Man of the People’ (1966) and ‘No Longer at Ease’ (1960).
The book ‘Things Fall Apart’ focuses on Okonkwo, who is an Igbo man and a well-respected warrior of the Umuofia clan. The story revolves around his life in the village and how the villagers observe traditional beliefs very seriously. Towards the end of the story, the introduction of the white missionaries and the theme of colonization emerge. The culture and traditions of the Africans slowly disintegrate as the missionaries and colonialists are determined to usher a new age of civilization to the West African State (Chinua, p.51). Okonkwo held on to the freedom of his culture and realized in the end that his people are not willing to fight for their traditions.
Okonkwo is a model family man, warrior, clansman, and farmer. He is motivated by the fact that his father, Unoka, was a disgrace who died while indebted to many people because he was an irresponsible spendthrift. Okonkwo swore never to be like his father and went out of his way to ensure that he grew to be the exact opposite, a man whom many people looked up to. He was however worried about his twelve-year-old son Nwoye who is lazy and has the potential to turn out like Unoka.
The village of Umuofia got into a dispute with a neighboring village and to settle this; the community gave Umuofia a virgin and a fifteen-year-old boy named Ikemefuna. Okonkwo took the boy as his son and grows very fond of him to the extent of referring to him as his father. Okonkwo exercises restraint in his relationship with Ikemefuna but is happy that his son Nwoye also takes a liking to the boy (Chinua, p.62). The two boys become attached, and to Okonkwo’s delight, Ikemefuna is like a model son and Nwoye begins to mimic the positive masculine traits of Ikemefuna. The boy stays with the family for three years.
One day locusts invade the village of Umuofia. Usually, when this happened, the locusts would be back every year for the following seven years nod then disappear for a long time. The villagers were excited and went about gathering the insects which were a delicacy when cooked. Ezeudu who was a respected village elder paid a visit to Okonkwo with the terrible news that the Oracle had decreed that Ikemefuna must be killed. He, Okonkwo, would not have a hand in the death as the boy called him ‘father.’ Oknokwo lies to Ikemefuna telling him that he would be returned to his home village, at which news Nwoye burst into tears.
When the men of Umuofia take Ikemefuna, he begins to reflect on the upside of the situation which was the fact that he would get to see his mother. Sadly after a while, the men attach the young boy with machetes. Okonkwo also does the same as he did not want to his fellow village men to think he was weak. He ignored the Oracle’s instruction that he was not to take part in killing the boy.
After the boy’s death, Okonkwo becomes depressed, and he can neither sleep nor eat. To ease his grief, he goes to visit his friend Obierika. He feels somewhat relieved during the visit and even helps to treat his friend’s daughter by gathering medicine for her. Soon after, the village elder Ezeudu’s death is announced. This news saddens Okonkwo who recalls that during their last conversation, Ezeudu warned him against killing Ikemefuna. However, he attends the elaborate funeral albeit with a heavy heart (Chinua, p.68). The funeral turns out to be tragic as the explosion of Okonkwo’s gun executes Ezeudu’s son. Okonkwo sinned against the earth goddess by killing a fellow clansman and had to take his family to exile for seven years as a way of atoning for his sin. His animals are killed, and his buildings burnt down to cleanse the village.
Okonkwo and his family retreated to the village in which his mother was born called Mbanta. They were received very warmly especially by his uncle, Uchendu. The villagers helped him settle down by building huts and lending him yams to plant. The family settled down to the rhythm of life in their new home. After a year, Okonkwo’s friend Obiereka came to visit while bearing the sad news that another village, Abame, had been devastated by the white men.
Soon after this visit by Obiereka, six missionaries made their way to the village of Mbanta with the intention of converting the villagers to Christianity. They explained to the villagers that the practice of worshiping more than one God was considered to be idolatry. They instead preached about their own God who was the Trinity. The villagers did not understand this. Even though they had come to convert the villagers, Mr. Brown did not allow his companions to provoke the villagers.
Mr. Brown fell and ill, and Reverend Smith was chosen to replace him. Reverend Smith was a less tolerant and patient man and allowed the followers to be free from restraint. During one of the traditional ceremonies, one of the white men dared to unmask one of the gods which were equal to killing the god. The gods were displeased and soon after the church was razed to the ground (Chinua, p.72). The District Commissioner was infuriated by the burning of the Church and requested that the clan leaders should meet him. His intentions were however not good, and he had the leaders thrown in jail.
They were eventually released, and the clan leaders held a meeting to discuss the situation. During the meeting, some messengers from the court approached them and ordered them to cease. Okonkwo rose up and killed the leader of the messengers with the expectation that his fellow leaders would join him. This turned out not to be the case, and Okonkwo realized that the rest of his people were not willing to go to war.
The part that I found most interesting about the book was the role that was played by Okonkwo who was the main protagonist in the story. He was a concerned father who always looked out for the wellbeing of his son Nwoye. He was delighted when Ikemefuna joined his family and became a positive influence on the boy. He was also very conscious of the negative image that his late father had left on the village and worked hard to distance himself from such a character.
Okonkwo was a man who believed firmly in the traditions of his people. When he killed his fellow clansman, he knew that he had sinned and he moved his family to another village. The whole clan held their traditions in high reverence and observed them religiously. The coming of the white man was a severe threat to these traditions. Mr. Brown and his followers told them that worshipping many gods was idolatrous. The concept of one God was one that was foreign to the villagers as they had many gods that they worshipped.
Mr. Brown took a better approach that was meant to convince the villagers and not just force Christianity upon them. Reverend Smith n the other hand took on an intolerant and aggressive approach which was disrespectful of the Africans and their culture. This led to retaliation in the form of burning down their church. The arrest of the leaders was a further antagonism. They should have approached the whole matter differently first by showing respect to the African culture and then attempt to convert them willingly.
Christianity also accompanied colonial rule, and this might have played a role in the local people’s refusal to be converted. The white man had invaded their county, imposed their rule on them and yet expected them to accept all this willingly. Okonkwo fights valiantly for his beliefs when he kills the leader of the court messengers. He hoped that his fellow clansmen would join him in this fight, but they did not. They must have realized that they stood no chance against the white man who was more powerful and could throw them in jail and mete abuse on them. The beginning of colonial rule in Africa caused suffering to the local people, and the book shows the beginning of this. The story is brilliantly told, and even though the events were from a long time ago, they remain captivating to study. It is no wonder therefore that ‘Things Fall Apart’ in considered Chinua Achebe’s best work.
Works CitedChinua, Achebe. “Things fall apart.” Ch. Achebe (1958): 1-117.
Native American Societies
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Native American Societies
Introduction
Many years before Christopher Columbus discovered the Americas, another group of nomads already inhabited Native America. These people hiked from Asia to Alaska. This was about 12000 years ago. By the time European adventurers arrived in America, it is estimated that about 50 million people were already settled in America. Archeologists and scholars have divided the people who lived in Americas into different subgroups. These are the Arctic, Subarctic, and Southeast natives, Northeast, California, Northwest, Plateau and the Plains.
These groups of people shared many cultural aspects. For instance, they were mainly nomads moving from place to place looking for animals on which they could prey on for survival. In addition, these people practiced fishing which helped them obtain food. Some groups also engaged in agriculture where they engaged in growing crops such as corn, vegetables and beans. Trade was an instrumental economic activity among these groups. The Indians started engaged in trade of fur in the 17th and 18th century. The Indians supplied pelts to the traders from Europe. Trade was an activity that helped the communities obtain most of the commodities that they did not have. The emergence and growth of fur trade later led to the displacement and extermination of the indigenous groups in America. The indigenous Indians lived in dome shaped houses. Other lived in underground dugouts when it grew too cold to engage in fishing. They also lived in tents which they constructed using sticks and skin from animals. The early inhabitants moved on foot and when fishing used canoes and boats to help them traverse the waters of river basins. The Indians wore snow shoes and lightweight canvas that served as a means of transport. They wore skins and seal to help them keep warm. Native Americans turned wild plants such as pumpkins, corn and beans into food fit for human consumption. The Southwest societies later started engaging in irrigation practices, this helped them water their crops so that they could flourish. Irrigation also helped them in times of extreme climatic conditions such as drought and famine. In fact, most of the American farm products known today originated from native America way before colonization by the British. This society also knew medicine as a vital science. They used medicinal herbs to cure ailments. Archaeologists have also established that Native Americans engaged in mining of minerals such as lead, coal and copper. This later became their basis of engagement in trade with European traders.
Political structures of this group of people dictate that these societies lived in small groups/bands. Each of these patterns pursued its own style of movement. Considering that these people were nomads, they kept roaming from place to place. It was thus difficult to have a centralized type of government. Government revolved around the kinship structure. The Indians had no hierarchies of leadership. Family and social pressure were the main contributing factors to order within these small decentralized groups. Government was decentralized, the egalitarian kind. Older members of the society, mainly men directed the activities of the band/group. They organized hunting expeditions and planned movements for migration purposes. The older men also mediated disputes that occurred between individuals. Most men who took up leadership roles were considered role models. They were organized, generous, eloquent, industrious ad skilled hunters at the time hence most members of a band respected them highly. There was a priest or a shaman. The priest connected the members of the society to the spiritual unseen world.
Pueblo Government
The descendants of the Anasazis existed in adobe pueblos. This was a unique sociopolitical structure. The pueblo believed that no one had monopoly to land. All land was communally owned. Any person was thus allowed to engage in farming in any part of the land. In addition, he or she could engage in fishing in any section of the waters. Decisions were made by adult men. However, women had a voice in the day today decision making process. The Isleta pueblo people were ruled by a chief, hunting chief and war priest (Thompson, 27) Chiefs performed the role of selecting individuals responsible for managing and maintaining facilities for irrigation. It was expected that for one to qualify for the position of chief, one had to be a gentleman. He was expected not to have been involved in injuring or killing of a fellow human being. In addition to selecting people to take care of irrigation facilities, the chief also performed agricultural rituals. These rituals ensured that rain would come in abundance so that irrigation would not be a problem in the community. The public supported the chief left right and center. For instance, they harvested his crops for him. The war priest was responsible for obtaining firewood, clothing and meat on behalf of the chief from resident of the community. He also headed the community warriors who defended the community from external attacks. These warriors were mainly young adult men, strong and fit to go to war. The hunting chief was in charge of organizing and leading hunting troops. He also performed rituals to ensure supply of adequate game to the community. Specialized shamans performed the role of regulating weather and healing.
In the Pacific Northwest, the inhabitants maintained life in villages. The clanship system was evident in this society. They believed in the existence of ancestors and used the totem pole as a means of claiming social superiority over other families (Luebering, 87). Each village maintained its own systems and claimed responsibility over its territories. Each village also had its own distinct hunting, fishing, meeting and sacred grounds. Visitors who used these spots were considered as visitors to the village. In other villages, such visitors were considered to be trespassers. War was a common occurrence in this society. The people of the Northwest often fought over fishing grounds with their neighbors. Each village was headed by a chief who was assisted by sub-chiefs and a council. The council was responsible for governing the society. They encouraged peace and harmony in the community. All village members were given a chance to speak at meetings. Chiefs performed the role of settling disputes in the village. They also hosted the council meetings. They engaged in counseling people in the village who had different kinds of problems. The chief was also in-charge of diplomatic relations with other communities. The chief was however limited in his scope of discharging his mandate. He could only make decisions that conformed to the principles and culture of the community. The position of chief was inheritable as it passed over from father to son. It could also pass on from a brother to another brother. The council had the mandate of recognizing the position of the chief meaning that the chief could only serve with the support of the council. The chief was expected to be an honest person, fair and a great mediator in times of disputes. He was hence expected to make wise decisions at all times.
The chief selected a sub-chief with the consent of the council. He assigned him duties to discharge within the chiefdom. The societies also selected a speaker. The speaker was the spokesman of the chief during council meetings. The chief whispered his thoughts in the ear of the speaker who then delivered the thoughts of the chief to the council. If a prospective chief attempted to gain a following in the village he had to organize and event, the pot-latch. This prospective leader would give away to his neighbors or destroy almost all property that he owned. The organizer of this event would then chant pronouncing his abilities to the village. He would then ridicule his rivals who competed against him for the headship position. By giving up his wealth to other people the contestant would gain popularity among people who would support him by virtue of being indebted to him. In some Columbia River Societies, the villagers selected a special officer, the Salmon Chief. This chief had authority as he was guided by the salmon. The special officer made critical decisions such as determining who would be in-charge of building fishing traps. He would then decide where these traps will be set up. He would then perform rituals to encourage fish to swim towards the traps. He also enforced rules and regulations relating to use of fishing traps. The Salmon chief would then decide how the catch would be distributed among people in the village (Luebering, 87).
Gender/Class Distinctions
Native Americans had differentiated roles for males and females in the villages. It was the role of women to take care of children in the homesteads. Women also helped in home chores such as cooking for the males who went out on hunting sprees. Women also engaged in gathering of wild fruits and berries. They also processed the food obtained from hunting.
The role of men was well defined. The men were responsible for security of the community whereby they defended the community against external aggression. They also took up leadership positions such as chiefs and high priest positions. It is the men who went out to hunt and fish in water bodies. They were also responsible for manufacturing weapons.
Uses of the Environment
The Native Americans were extremely well skilled in using their environment. They used the oceans and river basins for purposes of transport from one position to the other. In addition, they relied on the water bodies for extracting fish which was common food at the time (Anita 127). In addition, they made good use of the water from these basins to irrigate their crops such as vegetables and beans so that the society would not go hungry even in times of hunger. The society used skin from animals that were hunted as protective clothing. This proved to be instrumental especially in times of cold weather. They also used the skins from hunted animals to build tents in which they could live. Native Americans also used the ground as hideouts against enemies. In addition they could take cover in these hideouts to shelter them from extreme cold. The environment was also the source of tools and weapons used in the society.
Conclusion
Native Americans were well organized. They ensured that their material culture stood strong so that they could survive. In terms of defense, gathering of food, manufacturing weapons and housing, we see that this society was well organized. In addition to this, the society also has strong political and religious authorities. Gender roles were also well differentiated such that both men and women performed distinct roles. The Native Americans made proper use of their environment. The environment proved instrumental in survival strategies as it provided food and defense mechanisms.
Works Cited
Dalal, Anita. Native American Myths. New York: Gareth Stevens Pub, 2010. Print.
National Geographic America in 1607: Jamestown and the Powhatan
(http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2007/05/jamestown/jamestown-standalone)
Native American Directory: Alaska, Canada, United States. San Carlos, AZ (P.O. Box 5000, San Carlos 85550-0301: National Native American Co-operative, 1982. Print.
Thompson, William N. Native American Issues: A Reference Handbook. Santa Barbara, Calif: ABC-CLIO, 1996. Internet resource.Luebering, J E. Native American History. Chicago: Britannica Educational Pub, 2010. Internet resource.
Gender and Sexuality in Music
Gender and Sexuality in Music
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Gender and Sexuality in Music
This paper will evaluate the effect of gender and sexuality in music and would do so through analyzing the performances of several musicians in history. David Bowie a celebrated musician of the 1970s attracted a huge youth following and set up several visual patterns in terms of his personal appearance. This was in the form of his dyed hair and even his makeup. He consequently achieved a cult ovation in the early 70s and was variously involved in incarnations such as Mr. Newton, Ziggy Stardust, Alladin Sane, and more miserably, the Blond Fuehrer. His style created a novel sexually indistinct image for the youth cohorts. This was particularly so for those who were brave enough and willing to stand up to the disgraceful ordinary stereotypes traditionally available to the middle class men and women.
All Bowie concerts performed in Victorian town halls and dowdy provincial cinemas attracted a horde of astounding Bowie doubles, who were by all purposes cool under gangster hats that obscured (at least till the doors were opened) hair speckled with gold and silver, rinsed with a brilliant vermilion, strikingly scarlet or orange. These superb creatures were balanced nervously on podium shoes or slumped in the plastic sandals of the 50s, cigarettes held carelessly in their hands and their shoulders were set in certain angles; it was an unsure triumph by the oppressed. They were involved in a make believe game that has dismayed many rock analysts who showed their concern for the oppositional content and the authenticity of youth culture.
Bowie was not only uninterested in politics, working class life, or social issues but was predisposed to a perpetual avoidance of reality. However, he opened up many questions on sexual identity, which had been pushed under the carpet. At the end of the glitter spectrum, all music emphatically shifted from youth and class to gender sexual stereotyping. He and his fanatics questioned the meaning of adolescence and evolution to work. They did so by mystifying the images of the men and women through which this passage to maturity was conventionally accomplished.
The spice girls, riot girls, and cyber girls movements represented girls’ popular culture replicated this in the 90s. The spice girls capitalized on the fact that feminisms belong to the well-liked cultural field, which has been a force to reckon in the 20th century discourse on women. The consumers of their songs were pre-teen girls since their products were tailored towards this cohort. In the eighteen months in which they appeared they generated number one singles in more than 30 countries.
The spice girls’ success generated feminist politics on how girls can identify with their fellow girls. On the other hand, Riot girls were a confused lot like Bowie and his concerts had complex objectives. They have been defined by the spice girls as sexless, dull, self pitying, dour, and whining. Apparently, they have also described the spice girls in the same definitive terms. Despite their differences, they both question whether the girls possess an extraordinary expression formula that is particular to them.
Like Bowie before them, the Riot girls and the Spice girls were involved in a consumer capitalism attempt to restructure a reliant, adolescent class that colluded as reflexive teenage consumers in purchasing leisure. This occurred before they assumed adulthood rather than being a youth cohort who stand up to critique from whichever cultural perception the underlying principle behind adolescent .
Bibliography
Carter A. The message in the spiked heel: Spare Rib. (1976):16
Catherine Driscoll. Girl Culture, Revenge and Global Capitalism: Australian Feminist studies Vol 14, No.29, (1999): 178-181
Dick Hebdige. Glam and Glitter Rock: David Bowie-Sexuality and Gender Typing (2012): 105-106