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Article 1 Psychosocial functioning among college students who misuse stimulants versus other drugs
Literature Review
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Article 1: Psychosocial functioning among college students who misuse stimulants versus other drugs
The article is on the misuse of prescribed stimulants among college campuses. To understand the issue a study was conducted on various college students who were grouped in four categories, those who do not misuse hard drugs or stimulants, those who misuse both stimulants and hard drugs, those who misuse stimulants but no other hard drugs and those who misuse hard drugs and no other stimulants. The rise in the number of young people who abuse the stimulants pushed for this study and the author of the article found a correlation between substance abuse and potential psychopathology and that most stimulants misusers show higher impulsive rates. To conduct the study college students aged 18-23 from a southeastern university were randomly selected with 57 students who shared their interest in the study, 1141 were eligible for the study. The results suggested that most of the misusers of the prescription stimulants were male and that there were links between the misused stimulants and the use of other drugs.
Perhaps most notably, because all variables were measured at the same time, causality
cannot be inferred from any of the relationships observed. In particular, these results should not be taken as evidence of any temporally-ordered developmental mechanism, as many of these variables. This is the limitation of the study where it states that causality cannot be inferred. I picked this quote since it highlights one weakness of the study; every study has one (Cole& Hussong, 2020).
Evidently, there is a relationship between those people who misuse prescription stimulants and those who abuse other substances. While it is important to discourage the misuse of prescription drugs the first step to tackle this misuse seems to be advocating of the risks associated with the issues of other drugs too.
Article 2: Judging Cheaters: Is Substance Misuse Viewed Similarly in the Athletic and Academic Domains?
The article is on Prescription Stimulants like Ritalin and Adderall, they are usually prescribed to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), unfortunately, recent studies have suggested that most college students abuse them and it is more likely by males than females. Claims have been made that those who misuse them do so for academic motives and not recreation motives. Also, the article introduces Anabolic steroids that are hormones related to testosterone, they have a medical purpose but are often abused to improve athletic performance, just like PS males abuse them more than females. The study participants were about 1200 students who were from a large university in the mid-Atlantic, they were selected after all those freshmen who were 25 years and lives on campus were sent an email invitation. From the study, it was noted that most students perceived those who had misused AS as less ethical than those who had misused PS and that the difference between the two became larger as past PS misuse increased. One notable AS prevention program, the Adolescents Training and Learning to Avoid Steroids (ATLAS) Prevention Program, reduces athletes’ beliefs in the appropriateness of using AS to win. This program is meant to make athletes aware that AS use to win does not justify it is important and I selected it because while talking to people about the harmfulness of such drugs to gain a competitive advantage such programs incorporated in athletes make it easier (Dodge et.al 2012).
Lastly, the article has shed right on one of the issues where we see people considering one behavior more severe than the other even if both are harmful and unethical. It has helped me understand how this notion is prevalent in most college students and has made me aware of the ATLAS Program that I had no idea of its existence.
Article 3: Non-medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: prevalence and correlates from a national survey
There have been increases in the prescribing of psychoactive medications in the United States. This increases can be accredited to the increased awareness of the signs and symptoms of various disorders and the increase in the duration of treatment. Also, the users of prescription stimulants in The United States are higher than other countries just as the diagnosis of ADHD. Despite the diagnosis of most people with ADHD the numbers of the people being prescribed the stimulants increase have caught the public concern because if the non-medicinal use of such stimulants and the potential abuse of these drugs. The increase of non-medical use of prescription stimulants has been backed up by the college-based, national surveillance and national epidemiological studies in college students and young adults in America. To ascertain this conclusion a study was conducted using the data of 119 American 4-year universities and colleges in 39 states with 215 randomly selected students from each university or college. From the study, it was concluded that the number of students who had used the prescription stimulant has increased from the previous year and it was higher among males, white student’s members of sororities and fraternities and those with low grades.
Despite gender differences in the prevalence of non-medical use, the results of the present study indicated that risk factors for non-medical use of prescription stimulants generally operated in a similar way for women and men. The quote states that the risks of taking the prescription stimulants did not vary between males and female, I selected this because it is an important point to help people become aware of similar consequences (McCabe et. al ,2005).
Lastly, just as the studies have indicated the number of young people using these prescription stimulants id increasing and this should be a wakeup call to everyone since the risks of this usage have not been determined but they are not attractive.
Article 4: Aided by Adderall: Illicit Use of ADHD Medications by College Students.
The article claims that as of 2004 there was twenty percent of students who had used the prescription od ADHD for non-medical purposes, the evidence of these is not only research literature but also news articles. According to the author a 2009 article had claimed that the students used these drugs for studying which was worrying because of the potential of addiction. The article study focuses on the relationship between mental health and the motivation and prevalence of illicit use of ADHD. According to the author, ADHD is a disorder that interferes with development and is characterized by hyperactivity-impulsivity or ongoing inattention, it persists throughout one’s lifetime. Unfortunately, the number of young people being treated with the disorder is increasing. To ascertain these findings, the various literature review was done and out of a sample of 1,208 first-year college students without ADHD diagnoses, 18 .0% reported illicit use.
Research has consistently shown that males report illicit use at significantly higher rates than females, this quote suggests that most people who abuse prescription stimulants and medications for ADHD are male. I selected this quote since it states one of the most important fact about the users of this drugs and shed light on an area that need more attention (Rolland and Smith,2017).
Finally, it is clear that most young people rely on these drugs for recreational use and academic reasons, awareness on better study methods should be done to decrease the usage of this stimulant and the holding to the students to high standards should be evaluated too since it is one driving force.
Article 5: College student goals in the context of prescription stimulant misuse: An application of goals–plans–action theory
The article’s point of emphasis is to examine the measures underlying to prevent college students from misuse of prescription stimulants. According to the article, this misuse of such prescriptions is a risk and that most people who provide these drugs are the friends of college students. Unfortunately, the communication among the students seems to encourage this behavior and the college environment seems to be a conducive environment for engaging in this misuse. The article suggests that the goal plan action theory has a three-step process, first, we have goals that are either primary which provides meaning for interactions or secondary which are broad and are recurrent. The second step is formulating plans to pursue these goals they can either precede or follow the engage decision depending on the goal alignment. The last step is the action which talks of the message that is communicated among individuals to attain the goals.
GPA has been applied across a variety of influence interactions, including confronting peers about problem behavior, this is one area that the three process method has been applied. I choose this quote since it indicated one success of the approach to a peer issue and hence can be trusted to do the same to reduce the misuse of stimulants among college students (LaBelle & Ball, 2019).
Lastly, as the author insists peer pressure plays a big role in the increased misuse of stimulants among college students and while this pressure cannot be related to the stimulants it pushed the students towards them to fit in with the friends. Luckily, by using the three-step process the influence can be dealt with thereby decreasing the usage of these stimulants.
References
Cole, V. T., & Hussong, A. M. (2020). Psychosocial functioning among college students who misuse stimulants versus other drugs. Addictive behaviors, 105, 106290.
Dodge, T., Williams, K. J., Marzell, M., & Turrisi, R. (2012). Judging cheaters: Is substance misuse viewed similarly in the athletic and academic domains?. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 26(3), 678.
LaBelle, S., & Ball, H. (2019). College student goals in the context of prescription stimulant misuse: An application of goals–plans–action theory. Communication Quarterly, 67(1), 76-99.
McCabe, S. E., Knight, J. R., Teter, C. J., & Wechsler, H. (2005). Non‐medical use of prescription stimulants among US college students: Prevalence and correlates from a national survey. Addiction, 100(1), 96-106.
Rolland, A. D., & Smith, P. J. (2017). Aided by Adderall: Illicit Use of ADHD Medications by College Students. Journal of the National Collegiate Honors Council, 18(2), 41-77.
Home Network Security
Home Network Security
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What the Tutorial Teaches
The tutorial provides directions on how to secure your home network router. In this case, they are describing how to secure the Linksys network router. Using the default IP address on the router, you can access the home page of the router to be able to change the default settings. The first thing is to change the default password. The wireless network is secured by turning off broadcast option. This will prevent people from finding your wireless network upon Google search. Consequently, change the security mode to WPA2 personal. This is recommended since it allows text passwords that are long.
How Good the Tutorial is
The tutorial provides a simplistic approach to understanding the security set up process in a Linksys router. In addition, the tutorial gives descriptions of some of the terms the normal user might find hard to understand. Moreover, the tutorial gives some tips on how to prevent forgetting your passwords. For example, for a long password, one can simply save it as a text document on your hard drive you forget.
Who Might Find the Tutorial Useful?
This tutorial is useful in large families where there are elderly people and young children where there is a home network.
Safeguarding your Home Network
Several methods can be employed to safeguard a home network. These methods include the use of firewalls, securing your wireless network, use of antivirus protection, constantly updating software, locking out spyware and adware, creating strong passwords and backing up files.
Use of firewalls
According to Doherty and Anderson (2006), the use of firewall restricts unauthorized access by unwanted visitors to your home network. Firewalls will protect the home network by continuously monitoring the broadband connection and will only allow genuine traffic to access your network. A common example of a firewall type used is the stateful packet inspection (SPI) firewalls. The SPI firewall will only allow access to a website as long as the home network has made a request (Max, 2006). If the request comes from the outside or a hacker, the SPI firewall will block its access since there was no initial request from the home computer. The use of SPI firewall increases the level of security in a home network. Another example of a firewall to use is the personal software firewall (Doherty and Anderson, 2006). This firewall software acts as a barrier to any information from your computer that may go to the internet.
The firewall is placed between the home network and the internet. This is achieved by installing the firewall device between the broadband cable and the home network router. This could also be achieved by turning on the SPI firewall located in the router. For the personal firewall software, this can be obtained from the installed operating system such as windows 7. You should ensure that the firewall settings in your operating system are active. Additionally you can install ZoneAlarm software, which can be customized to select the programs that will have access to your computer.
Securing your Wireless Network
Waring (2007) suggests that the use of the Wireless Protected Access (WPA) protocol and the WPA2 protocol are more effective in securing your wireless network than the WEP (wireless encryption protocol). The advantage in using the wireless protected access protocols is that it is impossible to crack it since the keys used change dynamically. National Security Agency (2011) advises people to use strong passwords on all their network devices at home.
Administration limited to the Internal Network Only
According to the National Security Agency (2011), administration of the home networking devices should be done from the internal-facing network. In addition, remote administration should be disabled to reduce unauthorized access by a hacker. Consequently, one can use an alternate DNS provider such as a commercial or an open source DNS server. This is because the DNS provide by the ISP does not provide security services. Additionally, it is advisable to access your office network via a virtual private network (VPN) when connecting to your employer’s network from home. Walker (2006) recommends setting up passwords for your home network router.
Use of Antivirus Software
Computers on a home network should be fully installed with antivirus software. In addition, it is advisable to keep updating the antivirus program to ensure that the antivirus is up to date with the different virus definitions. The computer should be turned off if not in use. Further, the Ethernet interface should be disconnected when not in use.
It is also advisable to back up crucial data regularly and store them away from the computer. Moreover, for security purposes, it is recommended to create a boot disk in situations where there is a security breach or a hard disk failure.
References
Doherty, J. & Anderson, N. (2007). Home Network Security Simplified. Indianapolis: Cisco
Systems.Max (2006). How Firewalls Work. Retrieved from
http://www.bestsecuritytips.com/xfsection+article.articleid+2.htmNational Security Agency (2011). Best Practices for Keeping Your Home Network Secure.
Retrieved from http://www.nsa.gov/ia/_files/factsheets/Best_Practices_Datasheets.pdfWalker, A. (2006). Home Network Router Security Secrets. Retrieved from
http://www.ciscopress.com/articles/article.asp?p=461084&seqNum=2Waring, B. (2007). How to Secure Your Wireless Network.http://www.pcworld.com/article/130330/how_to_secure_your_wireless_network.html
Literacy and ESOL theories and frameworks
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Literacy and ESOL theories and frameworks
Theories of first and second language acquisition and learning and the associated language teaching approaches
Linguistic experts have developed many theories that analyze the process of first and second language acquisition and learning and the associated learning approaches. First language learners undergo an extensive and vigorous process in acquiring and learning a second language. Some of the most recognized scholars who have developed second language learning and acquisition theories include Krashen, Chomsky, Crystal, Brooks, Harmon, and Frith.
Chomsky’s theory of Universal grammar (UG)
Noam Chomsky introduced the theory of Universal Grammar (UG) in 1980. Chomsky argued that knowledge of grammar depends on two main components, the principles and properties shared among all languages, and the variation between properties of these languages. The theory uses the UG model that explains similarities of all natural languages and how human beings learn the second language the same way they acquire their first language. The aspect of UG shows that the process of acquiring the first language is guided and controlled by a specific cognitive module. Second language learners also use this cognitive approach to acquiring basic properties of the target language (Suzanne and O’Neil 277-279).
Chomsky asserted that the need to achieve full mastery of the target language motivates second language learners. In addition, the UG model argues that understanding the grammar of a second language does not involve totally knowing new structures, but involves discovering a set of parameters for a specific new language. Second language learners learn UG through their first language using parameters set for the second language. Chomsky demonstrated that other factors other than UG, such as learner’s input and learning environment, plays a role in language learning and acquisition. The theory of UG plays a major role in understanding the relationship between first language and acquisition but leaves a number of untouched elements of second language learning and acquisition process. The model helps in understanding stages experienced by language learners during first and second language development process.
Krashen’s second language acquisition theory
Krashen classified second language acquisition into five hypotheses categories. The five hypotheses as described by Krashen are the acquisition-learning, the monitor, the natural order, the transitional and the effective filter hypotheses. The acquisition-learning distinction forms the most significant of all hypotheses presented by Krashen. It argues that adults have two varying, independent helping in developing competences of a second language. The first method involves language acquisition that is similar to the way children learn language. Learners under this category never realize they are learning a new language, but only use the language as a means of communication. The second method of developing a language is through language learning. Learners acquire a conscious knowledge of a second language. Most linguistic experts claim that children acquire the language while adults learn the language (Krashen 10).
The Input Hypotheses act as the most commonly used approach in the second learning acquisition process today. It provides solutions to critical theoretical questions that explain how people acquire a second language today, and the challenges faced by first language learners in learning second language. According to Krashen, people acquire the language only when they understand its structures through using linguistic competences and knowledge of language acquisition and learning process (Krashen 20-21). Krashen’s five hypotheses theory claims that acquiring a language is different from learning the language. The theory plays a part in helping learners apply second language learning and acquisition skills in class through language knowledge. Moreover, error analysis helps in identifying mistakes made by first and second language learners in the learning and acquiring process.
Frith inter-language theory
Frith’s interlanguage theory of second language learning and acquisition claimed that learners who have an active and independent learning mind have higher chances of acquiring a new language. Inter-language may be described as a set of unique strategies that characterize the second language learning process. The inter-language approach invented by a learner assists in avoiding errors a learner would make in the target language. Frith used Selinker’s inter-language hypotheses to develop a theoretical approach to breakdown learner’s capacity in order to make a close follow-up of the performance. Selinker’s inter-language theory was used by Frith to assist in identifying and classifying errors into different types depending on the level of language proficiency of the learner. The inter-language hypothesis helps in identifying errors made by second language learners. Such errors should be eradicated in order to ensure the learner learns and acquires the correct form of target language. In addition, Frith observed errors made by learners as an opportunity to help come up with new strategies to help prevent such errors in the future. Finally, the theory the study of learner’s errors helps in uncovering the learner’s built-in syllabus and learning strategies (Frith 155-156).
Theories of literacy learning and development and the associated literacy teaching approaches
The language experience approach
The Language Experience Approach (LEA) acts as a form of a teaching approach that promotes learner’s participation in language literacy and learning. The theory capitalizes on learner’s background understanding of the target language and ensures instructors give learners experiences aimed at enriching language learning. The theory calls upon instructors to write down individual learner’s experience and compare them with others in the group for easier evaluation. Most language instructors argue that mistakes in grammar or structure have no impact on learner’s language experience, but depend on the understanding of the language through speaking. LEA also argues that the instructor could use vocabularies and other mechanical aspects of language teaching in promoting literacy learning and development. Learners who undergo uninterrupted formal education develop stronger oral language skills, but have a weakness in written language skills. Literacy acquisition compares to ethno-linguistic process, but the course has not been established by linguistic experts. LEA approach helps learners with lower levels of second language literacy understand general English language skills (ESL Literacy Network 2).
David Crystal’s Theory on Child Language Acquisition
Since mid-nineteenth century English language has become a second language for many learners across the world. Crystal’s Child Language Acquisition theory provides an analysis learner’s literacy learning and development from second language acquisition and learning point of view. The theory describes five major stages of child language acquisition. In the first stage, children acquired language assists them in asking for something they need, draw attention to something, and attract other people’s attention. The second stage sees children asking questions like “where”. A child becomes more conversant with the environment and starts classifying things. In the third stage, the child has almost acquired the first language and gains more literacy through the type expression they demonstrate. The child can easily construct a sentence with a meaning. In the fourth stage, the child develops increasingly complex sentence structures. They start explaining things, asking for an explanation on some issues, and demanding things. Finally, in the fifth stage the child completely acquires the language and uses it to do different things they need. Children express a hypothetical and conditional mode of communication (Crystal 237-240).
Works cited
Crystal, David. Part VII: Child Language Acquisition. In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of
Language. 3d ed. By David Crystal, 236–265. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
ESL Literacy Network. Theories of ESL literacy instructions. Bow Valley College, 2011. Web
November 1, 2014
http://www.esl-literacy.com/sites/default/files/Theories%20of%20ESL%20Literacy%20Instruction_1.pdf
Flynn, Suzanne, and Wayne A. O’Neil. Linguistic Theory in Second Language Acquisition.
Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988. Print.
Frith, B. M. “Interlanguage Theory: Implications for the Classroom.” Interlanguage implications,
(n.d),155-165
Krashen, Stephen D. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford:
Pergamon Press Inc, 2009. internet edition, web http://www.sdkrashen.com/content/books/principles_and_practice.pdf