Recent orders
Funding challenges faced by state correctional facilities
Funding challenges faced by state correctional facilities
The declining world economy in the recent past has led to a number of detrimental effects to the society. The economic situation has also had an effect on the correctional facilities available, some of which have faced enormous financial challenges. With the increasing prison population, it is possible to indicate that the situation is increasingly getting worse. The situation replicates itself in the San Quentin state prison, where the prison population is continually surpassing the bed capacity, which also means that other resources in the facility are under pressure resulting from the overcrowding (Freeman, 1999). The main financial challenge that the prisons are facing emanates from the budget cuts by the government, which has led to some of the correctional facilities to shut down their institutions. For this reason, the management in a number of the correctional facilities is considering the development of problem-solving skills that can take care of the new fiscal demands.
One of the reasons that determine the need for innovation in order to take care of the overcrowding is related to the safety provisions. It is possible to indicate that overcrowding leads to tensions among some of the prisoners, which is a factor that leads to the development of gangs in the institutions. These gangs are likely to compromise the security of the correctional facilities. As an initiative to supplement state funding, the management in San Quentin state prison has been able to collaborate with the Planting Justice organization for the development of an initiative that encourages some of the inmates to grow their own food through the Insight Gardening Program (Freeman, 1999).
Since the funding from the state is necessary for ensuring the sustenance of the inmates, which is inclusive of the provision of food, the initiative in consideration is necessary for ensuring that the inmates get enough and suitable food (Barclay, 2014). Apart from ensuring that the inmates get enough food for their use, the program is also an initiative that helps inmates in San Quentin rehabilitate and receive training in gardening. The onset of the program was in the year 2003. It is also possible to indicate that through the program the recidivism rate has reduced. Planting Justice indicates that the recidivism rate remains at ten percent, which is an indication that the program assists some of the participants to steer clear from crime once they get out of the facility (Barclay, 2014).
The management in the correctional facility uses several teams that ensure effective organization and control of the inmates in the facility. The first consideration by the management was to determine the security level of the inmates, after which it was possible to initiate the program from the wing with medium security. By acquiring assistance Planting Justice, the management was able to organize different teams that had different roles to play in ensuring the success of the program. There were teams that could provide the hands-on experience, which was necessary for improving the gardening skills of the inmates (Barclay, 2014). The management also considered the utilization of some of the therapists, who were vital for counseling the inmates participating in the program in order to change their mindset from criminal considerations to a more productive set up upon their release. Through effective coordination tactics, it was possible for the management in the facility to ensure that the inmates could develop their lives after prison, as well as the success of the program with the consideration of the looming budgetary challenges.
References
Barclay, E. (2014). Prison gardens help inmates grow their own food-and skills. Retrieved from: <http://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2014/01/12/261397333/prison-gardens-help-inmates-grow-their-own-food-and-skills>
Freeman, R. M. (1999). Correctional organization and management: Public policy challenges, behavior, and structure. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u Abstract PAGEREF _Toc377046441 h 1Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) PAGEREF _Toc377046442 h 1CO2 – Carbon dioxide (gas) PAGEREF _Toc377046443 h 3HCL – Hydrogen chloride (gas) PAGEREF _Toc377046444 h 4HCHO – Formaldehyde (gas) PAGEREF _Toc377046445 h 4COCL2 – Phosgene PAGEREF _Toc377046446 h 5C6H5OH – Phenolic PAGEREF _Toc377046447 h 5Aldehyde (Acetaldehyde) PAGEREF _Toc377046448 h 6Dioxins (Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins) PAGEREF _Toc377046449 h 7Polychlorinated dibenzofurans PAGEREF _Toc377046450 h 7NO2- Nitrogen Dioxide or Dinitrogen Tetroxide PAGEREF _Toc377046451 h 10Insecticide Ethion PAGEREF _Toc377046452 h 10SO2- Sulfur Dioxide PAGEREF _Toc377046453 h 12Industrial Solvent Nitrobenzene PAGEREF _Toc377046454 h 12HCN – Hydrogen Cyanide PAGEREF _Toc377046455 h 14References PAGEREF _Toc377046456 h 15
AbstractThe essay is about various industrial chemicals, health effects to humans of exposure, their physical and chemical properties, their resulting products after burning or decomposing and their pollutant effects on the environment. The essay further discusses the measures that persons and firefighters should take when in contact with the fires that have some elements of the flammable chemicals and how to put out such fires with no harm.
Introduction
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) are odorless and tasteless. Their shapes range from colorless oily liquids to progress viscous liquids. They darken as they get more yellow or black resins depending on the chlorine content of the PCB. It also has high thermal conductivity are very soluble in organic solvents.
The Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) have a molecular Formula of C12H10-nCln (Where n=1-10). They are steady compounds that do not decompose without extreme heat. They have a flash point of 140 degrees Celsius or higher depending on the Aroclor product level of chlorination. The PCBs are shaped by electro chlorination of biphenyl with chlorine gas, which is the method of producing hypochlorite by running an electric current over salt water. There are 209 structural isomers of PCBs also known as congeners.
The history of usage of Polychlorinated Biphenyls is that they were used as components of dielectric fluids in transformers and capacitors because of their inability to burn easily and good insulation properties. PCB was also used from 1930 to 1977 for industrial and commercial buildings, heat transfer equipment, hydraulic equipment, industrial fluids, paint, inks, plasticizers and carbonless copy paper. PCB can also be found in the food industry but the amount that is used is FDA approved. It can be found in artificial dairy products such as milk, egg and poultry.
PCBs have their Health Effects. When exposed to the epidermis for a period of time they may cause redness, dry skin and defatting based on the way that the person is handling the chemical substance. PCBs are easily absorbed through intact skin so there is a risk of getting chloracne. A skin disorder that is similar to skin spots that affect teenagers, (Rattler-Firebird, 2010). When the chemical comes into contact with your eye, it causes moderate irritation based on the way you handle the chemical substance.
If PCB is inhaled, it is produced as a vapor at elevated processing temperature. The person experiences respiratory tract irritation. Studies on animal studies show that when PCB is ingested, it can cause coughing, choking and shortening of breath. The toxicity of PCB according to LD50 is when used on rats from 2g/kg to 10g/kg in body weight. The PEL of PCB is 1mg/meter cubed. The STEL of PCB is 1mg/meter cubed. The TWA of PCB is 0.5mg/meter cubed. The IDLH of PCB is 5mg/meter cubed.
The term PCB is often used by people as a reference to chlorinated biphenyls, Aroclor, Clophen, Fenclor, Kaneclor, Pyralene, Askarel. The PCB can be decomposed in fire or hot surfaces to from gases such as CO, CO2, HCL, HCHO, COCl2, Phenolic, and Aldehyde.
The products of incomplete and complete combustion from Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)
CO – Carbon monoxide (gas)
Their exposure health effects in a short period are; changes in body temperature, changes in blood pressure, nausea, vomiting, chest pain, difficulty breathing, irregular heartbeat, headache, drowsiness, fatigue, dizziness, disorientation, hallucinations, pain in extremities, tremors, loss of coordination, hearing loss, visual disturbances, eye damage, bluish skin color, suffocation, blood disorders, convulsions and coma.
Nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, headache, dizziness, visual disturbances, blood disorders, heart disorders, heart damage, nerve damage, reproductive effects, birth defects and brain damage are the long term exposure health effects. The toxicity Amount according to LC50 (Inhalation of Mouse) is 2444 ppm/4 hours. IDLH is 1200 ppm. The PEL is 50PPM. The STEL is 200PPM ceiling.
CO2 – Carbon dioxide (gas) Health effects of CO2 on person’s are; shortness of breath and deep breathing and that’s on an average of 2-3%. 5% will allow breathing to become heavy, profuse sweating and pulse quickening. 7.5% of CO2 in the body can cause Headaches, dizziness, restlessness, breathlessness, increased heart rate and blood pressure and visual distortion. 10% can cause impaired hearing, nausea, vomiting and loss of consciousness. 30% CO2 in the body can cause a person to go into Coma, get convulsions and finally death.
The toxicity amount according to inhalation LC50 Human is 100,000 ppm/min. IDLH is. 40,000 ppm. The PEL is 5000ppm. The STEL is 30,000 ppm.
HCL – Hydrogen chloride (gas) Severe irritation and likely burns with coughing and choking are the likely health effects when HCL is inhaled. If gasped deeply, edema and loss of the lungs may happen. Lengthy exposure may cause staining and/or corrosion of the teeth. Eye contact results to severe annoyance with likely burns, enduring visual damage and total sight damage. Skin contact with this material may cause severe irritation and tissue corrosion. Heat, flames, sparks and other foundations of HCL ignition should be avoided. Contact of water and HCL should also be avoided because they react to form a strong acid. It can also react with some metals forming combustible hydrogen gas. Hydrogen chloride can respond with cyanide creating lethal concentrations of hydrocyanic acid.
The toxicity amount according to OSHA final PEL ceiling 5 ppm or 7 mg/meter cubed, and the LD50 for HCL is used oral 700 mg/kg (Rat) or 900 mg/kg (Rabbit), the LC50 is 3124 ppm (1 hour-Rat), LD50 Dermal 5010 mg/kg (Rabbit). And IDLH is 50 ppm for Hydrogen Chloride.
HCHO – Formaldehyde (gas)Formaldehyde is dangerous and fatal if inhaled. It is also harmful in contact with the skin. When swallowed, the respiratory tract, skin, and the eyes burn resulting in allergic reactions. It is a cancer hazard when applied to humans. HCHO have a severe fire danger and therefore fire fighters should be careful when handling it. Both vapor or air mixtures of HCHO are explosive but the vapor is heavier than air. Vapors or gases could ignite at distant ignition sources and flash back and also HCHO stored in containers might rupture or explode if exposed. HCHO can be extinguished by using carbon dioxide a regular dry chemical.
The toxicity Amount according to LD50 used Orally for rats is 5628 mg/kg while 7300 mg/kg when Orally used on mice. IDLH for formaldehyde is 20 ppm based on acute inhalation toxicity data in humans. The PEL is 200 ppm TWA or 260 mg/m3 TWA. The STEL is 2 ppm.
COCL2 – Phosgene
High toxicity of phosgene, a colorless gas, saw its use as a chemical weapon during the WW1. Phosgene can cause irritation, lack of sense of smell, vomiting, chest pain, difficulties in breathing, headache, dizziness, bluish skin color, lung congestion, lung damage and finally death. For small fires containing phosgene you should use carbon dioxide, a regular dry chemical to extinguish the fire. Large fires containing phosgene should be extinguished using regular foam or flood with fine water spray
The toxicity Amount according to LC50 used for Inhalation of a rat from phosgene vapors is 334 mg/meter cubed. IDLH is 2 ppm. PEL-TWA is 0.1 ppm. The STEL is 0.06 ppm.
C6H5OH – PhenolicPhenol can cause irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. The absorption is very quick by any route of exposure when in to contact with Phenol. It can result in severe toxicity including death. Phenol acts upon the central nervous system causing excitation and convulsions followed by sudden collapse and unconsciousness. Death can be very rapid and is due to toxic effects on the central nervous system, the heart, lungs, kidneys, and blood vessels. Ingestion quickly results in burning of the mouth, mouth sores, diarrhea, and marked abdominal pain. Inhalation can result in lung irritation and pulmonary edema. Phenol may form methemoglobin which can result in a bluish tint to the skin. Skin and eye exposure results in pain, numbness, severe burns, and eschar formation. If Phenol comes into contact with the eyes, it can cause severe corneal injury with permanent blindness.
Phenol containers can detonate violently when exposed to heat or fire. Phenol produces toxic and corrosive gases during when burning and therefore very dangerous. When dealing with a fire containing phenolic, as a firefighter you should not allow skin exposure. Do not enter a fire scene without full bunker gear such as a helmet with face shield, bunker coats, gloves, and rubber boots. Use extinguishing media such as Halon replacement, carbon dioxide extinguishers, water spray or alcohol foam for small fires. Great and dangerous fires should be extinguished with alcohol foam, water bunch, and fog. Fight fire from maximum distance just to be safe. Use water spray to cool vessels exposed to the fire. Water containing phenol can cause chemical burns to firefighters.
The toxicity Amount according to LC50 (Inhalation of rat) is 316 mg/m3 or LD50 Oral use (on-mouse) is 270mg/kg. The IDLH is 250 ppm. The PEL is 5ppm.
Aldehyde (Acetaldehyde) Aldehyde (Acetaldehyde) inhalation to units lower than 200ppm can cause nose, pharynx, and upper respiratory tract irritation with no acute lung injury. When inhaled at high concentration, it can cause inhibition of the central nervous system leading to a coma, dizziness, unconsciousness, or death. Lung edema, coughing, and difficulty in breathing lasting for a few hours to a few days are also some of the symptoms that one experiences on high aldehyde concentration.
The toxicity amount of LC50 (rat, inhalation) is 15600 mg/m3/4Hours. And LD50 is (rat, ingestion) 661 mg/kg. The STEL is 125 ppm.
Furan
Short term and long term effects of furan exposure are nausea, vomiting, headache, symptoms of drunkenness and death. Furan can also be very toxic to the lungs and damaging the nervous system as well as damaging the organs. The toxicity amount of LC50 (inhalation of a rat) is 3398 ppm/1 hour(s)
Dioxins (Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins)Dioxins can cause headache, blurred vision, nervous and respiratory system depression. When it comes into contact with the skin, it can cause chloracne. Inhalation can cause abnormalities to the enamel of the teeth, thyroid disorder and damage to the immune system. In some cases people suffer from diabetes and endometriosis.
Polychlorinated dibenzofuransThe effects of this chemical on a person are very dangerous. They can cause a lot of abnormalities. It is toxic to the environment and a pollutant. It also causes multiple types of cancers and mutagen.
Tordon* 101 Herbicide (Agent White)
Agent White is a code name for Tordon 101. Tordon 101 is a mixture of Picloram (4-Amino-3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridinecarboxylic acid, and 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid). Tordon 101 herbicide is non-volatile, cost effective and easy to use. 2, 4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acids are incompatible with strong oxidizers, and are corrosive to metals. Tordon 101 appears an amber color with the density of 1.15 g/ml in soil or water. Picloram breaks down into naturally occurring compounds such as carbon dioxide and water. It is Insoluble in water and it easily decomposes when in water. Picloram is sensitive to continued exposure to light. Aqueous results may be decomposed by light. It is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, strong acids, acid chlorides and acid anhydrides.
The health effect of Picloram is that when exposed to the skin for a short period of time it is essentially non-irritating to the skin. Prolonged interaction and exposure to the skin can cause slight skin irritation with local inflammation. Frequent contact could cause slight skin irritation with local redness. Picloram is unlikely to be absorbed through the skin. During a prolonged period of time, there will be no huge harmful amounts absorbed, but it causes allergic skin reactions when tested in guinea pigs. When inhaled through the mist with prolonged and excessive exposure, it may have adverse effects. If small quantities are swallowed and digested incidentally as a result of regular handling, operations are not likely to cause injury, however swallowing greater amounts can cause injury such as gastroentric distress, diarrhea, mild central nervous system depression, dysphagia, and possible transient liver and kidney injury. Eye contact causes moderate irritation and slight corneal injury. Effects of Repeated Exposure to Picloram can cause Kidney injury and damage to the liver, eyes, and the thyroid. When tested on animals there are symptoms of nausea and vomiting. There are birth defects that show on the mothers of springs in lab animals only at doses producing severe toxicity in the mother.
Agent white is used to control annoying broadleaf wildflowers and plants that tend to grow along electrical power lines, railway beds, roadsides, pipelines, and some other places. Tordon 101 is used to reduce fire hazard on military bases and around industrial manufacturing and storage sites, at the same time it does not damage grass. About 5.25 gallons of agent white were dispensed during Ranch Hand operations (War between the USA and Vietnam). More than 95 percent of Tordon 101 was applied in defoliation mission because of the persistence of Tordon 101 in Soil, it was not recommended for use on crops, but was most often used in areas where longer persistence rather than immediate defoliation was desired, such as inland forest. Tordon 101 was effective mainly on broadleaf herbaceous and woody plants. The herbicide’s action of woody plants is usually slow; however, full defoliation did not normally occur for several months.
Picloram is the active component in Tordon 101, it’s used by attaching to organic material in shallow soil layers. This limits its movement deeper into the soil though it is likely to reach groundwater or be found in surface runoff.
Unusual hazards of combustion produced in a fire are toxic and irritating hydrogen chloride or phosgene gases that can be very dangerous. Some of the extinguishing media used to put out this chemical when fighting fire is foam, dry chemical, carbon dioxide, or water spray.
The toxicity of Picloram according to the oral LD50 for Picloram is 8,200 mg/kg in rats, between 1,061-4,000 mg/kg for mice, between 1,922-3,000 mg/kg for guinea pigs. The PEL of Picloram is 15 mg/meter cubed in total dust, and 5 mg/meter cubed in respirable. The STEL of Tordon 101 is 1,250 mg/m3 or 500 ppm. TLV of Tordon 101 is 10mg/m3 and TWA is 8 hours.
Products of combustion and incomplete combustion from Tordon* 101 Herbicide (Agent White)
NO – Nitrogen monoxide
NO can cause damage to the organs such as the red and white blood cells, lungs, mucous membranes, upper respiratory tract, skin, eyes, central nervous system and also the nose or sinuses, as well as the throat.
The toxicity amount according to the LC50 (inhalation of rat) is 115 ppm/1 Hour. And IDLH is 100 ppm.
NO2- Nitrogen Dioxide or Dinitrogen TetroxideNO2 effects are mainly due to overexposure. It may irritate the mucous membranes, sinuses, pharynx, and bronchi, with pain, headache, cyanosis, irregular respiration, choking, dizziness, and possibly pulmonary edema (only after 5 hours to 72 hours of exposure time). When you inhale high concentrations of vapor, it can cause pain, choking, broncho constriction; reflex slowing of the heart, and possibly asphyxiation. Death can result from lack of oxygen.
The toxicity amount according to LC50 (Inhalation of rat) is 88 ppm/4 hours. The PEL (ceiling) is 5 ppm. The IDLH is 20 ppm.
Insecticide EthionThis is an organophosphate insecticide with a molecular formula of C9H22O4P2S4. Pure ethion is a clear yellowish liquid with an unkind sulfur-like smell. It is also a wettable emulsifiable liquid with a flashpoint of 176.1 °C. Ethion does not transpire naturally in nature. This insecticide is created commercially by shifting dibromomethane with O, O-diethyl hydrogen phosphorodithioate in ethanol under measured pH conditions. Ethion burns, but not easily ignited. Heat is used to decompose Ethion at temperatures above 302F. It emits extreme toxic fumes of oxides of sulfur and phosphorus. Acids and Alkalis hydrolyze Ethion and it is also slowly oxidized in air. Some of the extinguishing media used to sustain this burning chemical are Dry chemicals, CO2, Halon, water spray or standard foam (large fires), water spray, fog or standard foam.
Special firefighting procedures used to prevent the fire department are wearing full protective clothing and self-contained breathing apparatus. Do not breathe smoke, gases or vapors generated. Try to keep containers cool with soft stream water fog.
Usage of Ethion is in agriculture, mostly to control creatures on citrus trees. It is also used on cotton, fruit and nut trees, and some vegetables. It may also be used on lawns and turf grasses, but not used in the home for pest control. People get exposed to Ethion by working in industries that make Ethion, as pesticide applicators or eating raw fruits or vegetables that have been treated with Ethion and skin contact with soil containing Ethion.
Health effects due to Ethion exposure occurs mostly from interaction with the epidermis or breathing contaminated air. Exposure to Ethion may also happen from eating contaminated food or drinking contaminated water. Exposure to Ethion affects the function of the central nervous system and at high doses can cause nausea, sweating, diarrhea, loss of bladder control, blurring or dimness of vision, muscle tremors, and labored breathing. In rare cases when you get severe poisoning, it can result in coma, inability to breathe, and death.
The Toxicity amount according to the LD 50 values for pure Ethion in rats of 208 mg/kg. The PEL of Ethion is 0.4 mg/Meters Cubed. The STEL of Ethion is 101 mg/m³ (15 minutes) and also STEL of Ethion is 60 ppm.
The product of combustion and incomplete combustion from Insecticide Ethion
SO2- Sulfur DioxideSO2 is a colorless gas. Effects on a person exposed to Sulfur Dioxide are damaging to organs such as lungs, upper respiratory tract, skin, and eyes. When this toxic chemical is inhaled, it can be dangerous and toxic. It causes death and can cause severe irritation of the nose and the throat. When a person is exposed to this chemical at high concentrations, it can cause life-threatening accumulation of fluid in the lungs (pulmonary edema). Some of the symptoms can be coughing, shortness of breath, difficult breathing and tightness in the chest. A single exposure to a high concentration can cause a long-lasting condition like asthma and some other symptoms which may include shortness of breath, tightness in the chest and wheezing.
The toxicity amount according to LC50 (Inhalation gas in rat) is 2520 ppm/1 Hour. And the PEL is 5 ppm 8 hours and TWA 13 mg/m³ 8 hours.
Industrial Solvent NitrobenzeneA mixture of nitric acid and sulfuric acid results to nitrobenzene which is formed by benzene nitration. Nitrobenzene is a Nitro aromatic compound that exists at room temperature as an oily liquid with a strong almond like odor (Oder threshold 0.37 PPM). It is usually colorless and more of yellow or brown. Nitrobenzene can be frozen below its freezing point to form a crystal shape. Nitrobenzene has a molecular weight of 123.1g/mole and is somewhat soluble in water (water solubility is 2.090 g/L at 25 degrees Celsius), soluble in acetone, easily soluble in alcohol, benzene, oils, and ether. Nitrobenzene is a stable compound when stored below normal pressure and temperature. It can also be extremely dangerous with explosive potential when set heat or flames are close to it (ignition source is at 482°C). The flash point when closed cup is at 87.78 degrees Celsius. The melting point of this chemical is 5.7 degrees Celsius, and the boiling point is 210.8 degrees Celsius.
Molecular formula of Nitrobenzene is C6H5NO2. This chemical is produced in a repeating process by the direct nitration of benzene. Nitrobenzene has a lower explosive limit of 1.8% and upper explosive limit of 40.0%
An average of 97% of nitrobenzene is mostly used in the manufacture of aniline. It is used as a foundation and in the manufacture of benzidine, quinolone, azobenzene, rubber chemicals, pyroxylin compounds, isocya- nates, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and dyes such as nigrosines and magenta (particularly azo dyes). We use nitrobenzene on a daily basis because it can be found in soaps, shoe and metal polishes. It is used as a solvent for cellulose ester, in modifying esterification of cellulose acetate, and in refining lubricating oils. Nitrobenzene is also used as a solvent in petroleum refining and in the synthesis of other organic compounds, such as acetaminophen.
Nitrobenzene is hazardous in some cases and its health effects may result to increase in heart rate, cause convulsions or rarely death with skin exposure. Nitrobenzene inhalation through its vapors may result in the person experiencing headaches, dizziness, nausea, fatigue, cyanosis, weakness in the body, and rarely death. Digestion can be extremely hazardous and can also cause headaches, dizziness, nausea, vomiting and gastrointestinal irritation, loss of sensation especially use in limbs and as well as causing a person to internally bleed from inside the body. This chemical is toxic , blood, kidneys, lungs, liver and mucous membranes.
The toxicity of Nitrobenzene according to the LD50 when applied orally in rats (acute) is from 350mg/kg to 780 mg/kg and dermal LD50 is 2100 mg/kg. The PEL of Nitrobenzene is 1 ppm (5 mg/meter cubed). The LTEL of Nitrobenzene is 0.2 ppm (1 mg/meter cubed). The Nitrobenzene IDLH is 200PPM based on acute inhalation toxicity data in humans.
Nitrobenzene is very flammable, and produces poisonous smokes and vapors of nitrogen oxides when heated and decomposing. When there is a fire containing nitrobenzene, you should use fine water, also liquid tight chemical protective clothing with breathing apparatus. Nitrobenzene can be very dangerous to the environment. Dermal and work related contact to nitrobenzene can occur when inhaling at workplaces or close to where nitrobenzene can be created or used. Studies show that the general population can come into contact to nitrobenzene through the breathing of ambient air. Studies show that you can come in contact with nitrobenzene by even ingesting drinking water.
The Product of incomplete and complete combustion from Industrial Solvent Nitrobenzene
HCN – Hydrogen CyanideHCN is very toxic when inhaled. The chemical can also produce significant health effects at comparatively low levels. It is also a protoplasmic poison and reduces oxygen to the tissues causing death by chemical asphyxiation. When a person is exposed to low concentrations of this gas, it can cause a person to get headaches, vertigo, irritation of the throat, difficulties in breathing, reddening of the eyes, salivation, nausea and vomiting. When affected for a long period of time with high concentration of the Hydrogen Cyanide it can cause symptoms like tachypnea, dyspnea, weakness of arms and legs, paralysis, unconsciousness, convulsions and respiratory arrest.
The toxicity amount according to LC50 (Inhalation of rat) is 140 PPM, when exposure time was 1 hour. The IDLH is 50 PPM. And the STEL absorbed through the skin is 4.7 PPM (Ceiling).
Conclusion
Decomposing or burning the chemicals discussed above will have harmful impacts to the environment. They will harm the environment for decades to come. Most of the products of complete combustion and incomplete combustion are very dangerous and after environment research, studies show that the environment is badly contaminated and there is a danger to both people’s health as well as the animals.
References BIBLIOGRAPHY l 1033 Rattler-Firebird. (2013). Agent Orange and Chloracne. [Online] http://rattler-firebird.org/va/agentorange/chloracne.php retrieved on 5th December 2013.
FUNDING CCI USING THE PUBLIC PURSE
FUNDING CCI USING THE PUBLIC PURSE
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Introduction
As political entities in England and entire Britain strive to attain a comprehensive and coherent arts policy, outlining the significance and rightness of funding and subsidising creativity is imperative. While funding arts in the country has been an area of controversies in mainstream political debates waiting in the wings as administrative echelons continue to negotiate and dispute government spending cuts, it is undoubted that arts are a noteworthy public good. In other words, arts are an indispensable part of civic wellbeing and culture, which matter as much as national defence, social security, education, and other elements of public continuity do. If arts are unsupported financially, this civic wellbeing is damaged, and the power of arts as agents of essential contribution to economic development is undermined. For this reason, arts should be funded, although a divide is visible as regards the source of funds. While some argue that the government should invest a portion of taxpayers’ pounds in supporting arts, others are convinced that the private sector should pick up the costs because financing arts using public funds is a misplaced priority. Considering these views, this essay seeks to shed more light on the importance of funding arts publicly. The essay has two sections the first of which focuses on why arts should receive funding from the public purse. The second section addresses the implications of reduced local or central government funding on visual arts, which is the art chosen for this particular context.
Arguments for Funding Arts Using the Public Purse
The class studies on leadership and management of creative and cultural industries appreciate the importance of the government in funding, delivering, supporting, hosting, and promoting the arts and cultural heritage of local communities. What this means is that funding of arts is an essential policy area in government initiatives. In the context of civilised societies in the UK, arts are a joint contribution to the public good because it has important educational, aesthetic, economic, cultural heritage, and social influences (Bolstad 2010; OMC Working Group, 2014). In essence, the arguments for the funding of arts using public money presented in this essay draw on these influences of arts.
Important Economic Contributions
While arts are made freely and aimed at activities that are crucial to the civic health of society, they mostly appear not to generate profits even when done well. This means that the profitability of art is not a satisfactory measure of their quality. Even so, arts have been found to produce direct economic benefits to the national treasury because they drive the economics a community. This statement means that funding arts using public funds will ultimately pay for itself. Proof for the economic value of subsidising arts from the public purse is well documented. For instance, Alexander (2007) admits that the arts sector has a direct economic value realised in terms of job establishment, tourism, and the creation of national, regional, and local wealth. Aquino, Phillips, and Sung (2012) and Bolstad (2010) outline the indirect, direct, and public-good economic benefits of arts, which include but not limited to individual satisfaction, spending for local communities, the global attraction of people, and tax revenues, among others.
Further, Holmes (2010) provides statistical evidence of why arts have been a major financial success story in the United Kingdom, thereby justifying the need to finance arts using public funds. This author confirms that creative industries generate revenues of approximately 112.5 billion pounds while creating employment for over 1.3 million people, contributing to 5% of the UK’s total employed workforce. Further, Holmes provides evidence that the exportation of arts contribute to 10.3 billion pounds to the UK’s balance of trade, with creative industries accounting for more than 5% of the nation’s GDP. Further statistical evidence by Holmes (2010) affirms that the UK theatre received 54 million pounds in subsidy back in 2008, which paid back about 75 million pounds in value-added tax in London alone.
Whyman (2010) established from treasury calculations that in Gateshead and Newcastle, 1 pound of public investment in 10 major cultural buildings generates 5 pounds in the regional economy while creating employment for over 2000 persons. Essentially, these factual figures reveal that the value of arts and creative industries in the UK’s gross domestic product is comparatively higher than the value contributed by individual manufacturing industries, Mikić (2012) subscribes. All these figures of economic returns and employment evince why arts need funding from the public purse as funding arts using public money does not only have big economic payoffs but also safeguards the people’s employment. If other industries are funded and subsidised, there are no justifiable reasons for not funding the arts industry that has such significant economic contributions. Looking at these figures, the financial support for the arts using public funds should indeed be seen as an investment rather than a subsidy.
Educational Value of Arts
Arts should also receive public money because of their invaluable contribution to education. The society expects local, city, and central governments to provided services such as education for the community’s benefit through taxation. Arts have proven to be a unique, productive, and effective approach to educating the community. The reason is that the government has no concern for the public’s hobbies, interests, and preferences as these aspects vary differently. An individual’s interests and hobbies are a private affair requiring one to pays for them to benefit from them. Holmes (2010) suggests that funding arts publicly provides a forum for the government to effectively take money from persons without an active interest in arts to educate those who do have such an interest. Arts are also valuable in educational settings because they are an approach to classroom instruction delivery, cultural learning, empowering schools to deliver learning services, and promoting civic education (Gilmore 2014). Furthermore, arts are important instruments that can be integrated into education to teach community cohesion, capacity building, gender roles, community regeneration, cultures of voluntary contribution, and quality innovation (Keaney et al. 2007). Also, arts in schools contribute to aesthetic and instrumental learning outcomes, learners’ identity, ingenuity, capacity for self-expression, and transmission of cultural values and heritage (Bolstad 2010). Earlier scholarly work by O’Hagan and Duffy (1987) suggests that using arts in education provides exceptional learning experiences for personal development, learning active participation, and social education among young people. All these elements of the educational value of arts support the belief for funding arts publicly. Here, government spending should target objectively beneficial educational policies that benefit all people.
Empowerment of the Cultural Expression of Local Communities
Federation Council (2019) established that local councils and central governments are crucial players in enabling local communities to participate in artistic and cultural expression while serving as the bedrock of the creative and cultural industry ecosystem in the United Kingdom. This means that by funding art publicly, governments allow communities to exercises greater expressions of their cultural heritage. In agreement, OMC Working Group (2014) suggests that funding arts using public funds is the most effective way to ensure that a nation’s wealth of cultural expression does not disappear under the supremacy of economic and political issues and prevailing cultural paradigms. Knell and Taylor (2011) contend that the public funding of arts is essential because it improves cultural infrastructure, enhances outstanding cultural output and confidence, and drives intercultural discourses and interactions necessary for generating collective cultural and aesthetic expressions. So, funding arts publicly provides the fundamental impetus for cultural expression, which forms the groundwork for social justice and political transformation in the country as Crossik and Kaszynska (2016) advocate.
Arts and Identity
Art should be funded from the public purse because it is vital to people’s historical heritage, identity, collective memory, sense of belonging, civic capacity, national feeling, and self-esteem, besides being part of what drives, inspires, motivates them (Keaney et al. 2007; O’Hagan and Duffy 1987). According to Scott (2010), arts play a crucial role in establishing inclusive and resilient communities, building their identity, engaging young people in such communities, and creating and retaining their wellbeing. Art is pragmatically an indispensable element of identity in contemporary civilisation, meaning that engaging in it is not a frolicsome waste of valuable time. Since time in the modern era is money, arts need to be funded publicly to provide artists with utility for their time, a concept that Holmes (2010) advocates.
The Quality of Life Perspective
Arts give people life in the era of modernism because they provide a balance to people’s hectic lifestyles even as this modernity makes life tiring, stressing, and fast-paced. Arts give people the vigour to move forward and enjoy their existence amidst the strain, stress, and exhaustion emanating from modernity, along with allowing them to pursue more in life. What these statements mean is that arts improve people’s quality of life. Arts affect the quality of people’s lives in that they relate to micro-level associations, processes, and relationships in everyday life in the contexts of family networks, communities, homes, private domains, friends, and public-funded institutions (Gilmore 2014). Arts also create intrinsic, instrumental, and extrinsic value that contributes to augmenting the quality of people’s lives (Crossik and Kaszynska 2016; Gilmore 2014; Knell and Taylor, 2011). Examples of this value include the development of affective and cognitive abilities, excellence, and artistic quality (Bolstad 2010; Keaney et al. 2007). Given the fact that arts are significant contributors to the improvement of the quality of life, public funds should be invested in ameliorating arts to ensure that they continue to enhance life’s quality.
Urban Regeneration
Arts should be publicly funded because they enable urban regeneration together with social inclusion, community sustainment and cohesion, and health (Alexander 2007; Aquino, Phillips, and Sung 2012; Crossik and Kaszynska 2016; Gilmore 2014). The Symphony Hall in Birmingham serves as evidence that arts are at the core of urban regeneration as the arts there breathed life into the centre of Birmingham. This is by stimulating an explosion of service and local retail industries such as restaurants, bars, construction, and others, along with enhancing and enriching local educational opportunities to pupils by exposing them to a vast variety of cultures (Holmes 2010). So, the fact that arts help in reinventing all major cities in the UK justifies that arts should be publicly funded.
Implications of Reduced Government Funding On Visual Arts
Reduced local/city or central government funding on culture has several implications for the arts sector. In this section, six implications relating to visual arts are discussed.
Career Opportunity Diminishment
The primary implication of cuts to local and central government culture budgets is the loss and diminishment of career opportunities for people in visual arts. Comunian, Faggian, and Jewell (2011) acknowledge that many career opportunities are found in different arts. However, cuts to government spending on visual arts impede these opportunities. The cuts can be in the form of cuts to educational expenditure that relates to these arts. O’Hagan and Duffy (1987) acknowledge that these cuts can occur in two principal areas. The first is reduced spending on education and training for people wishing to make careers in visual arts while the second is reduced spending in tutelage for school children and communities who appreciate visual arts at large. Keaney et al. (2007) argue that funding of arts provides people with hands-on arts experiences, offer them with relevant and engaging experiences, allow them to freely access the arts, and enable them to pursue professional careers in arts of their choice. What this means is that reduced government funding on visual arts at the local and national level causes career opportunity impediments right at the grassroots.
It is ridiculous that a government can spend about 100 million pounds to make one jet fighter and forfeit investing 150 million pounds to finance art programmes for a whole year. These figures show that arts funding only takes a minute fraction of government expenditure yet the arts industry creates many jobs and career opportunities. This observation implies that reduced government spending on visual arts is unjustifiable as it only serves to diminish career opportunities for many people and groups and damage their employment sustainability. In essence, it is senseless to hack grassroots public provisions that culminate in discovering and cultivating expressive abilities and talents that translate to lucrative careers.
The Weakening of Visual Arts Heritage Ecosystem
Cuts to local and central government culture budgets also weaken the visual arts’ heritage ecosystem in the country. Open innovation hubs provide a creative ecosystem within which a broad gamut of cultural, creative, and commercial constituents are realised. An example of such hubs is Watershed in Bristol, which represents a ground-breaking business model emerging within the cultural sector to hurl creative networks in a transforming setting (Crossik and Kaszynska 2016). When government funding to culture is reduced, the establishment of such open innovation hubs that deal with exemplary visual arts is debilitated. Consequently, the heritage ecosystem of visual arts weakens. Also, such cuts disrupt the United Kingdom’s cultural heritage derived from visual arts by limiting people’s intellectual capacities and artistic services needed for the maintenance of the visual arts’ cultural heritage ecosystem.
Erosion of Cultural, Economic, Human, and Social Capital
The third implication of reducing local and central government funding on visual arts is the erosion of the nation’s cultural, economic, human, and social capital. According to Aquino, Phillips, and Sung (2012), arts and creative and cultural industries play a momentous role in building social capital and social networks that assist in increasing the quality of people’s lives. Bolstad (2010) adds that art programmes are indispensable building blocks in the creation of both cultural and social capital within communities. Community-based arts play an important role in creating social, economic, and human capital needed in overcoming societal inequalities by buttressing friendships, enabling the resolution of complex social problems, and facilitating the comprehension and celebration of cultural heritage (Crossik and Kaszynska 2016; Knell and Taylor 2011). So, when government funding of visual arts is lessened, this stock of capital that includes cultural, economic, human, and social capital is eroded gradually until it is entirely lost. When this stock of capital is lost, the instrumental, intrinsic, and institutional utility of visual arts vanishes, leading to the loss of overall community capacity (Scott 2010). It is worth recalling that erosion of society’s stock of cultural, economic, social, and human capital translates to reductions in local government’s capabilities to support cultural, commercial, and social life and social wellbeing.
Closure of Facilities and Services
The reduction of local and central government funding on visual arts also causes the closure of services and facilities that deal with these arts. Visual art theatres need maintenance, renovation, and face-lifting. If the government cuts funding on visual arts, search services end up not being offered, subjecting these theatres to risks of closure. O’Hagan and Duffy (1987) suggest that financial pressures threaten the closure of major theatre companies, with these pressures stemming from criticism against imbalances in art funding decisions and disparities in government subsidies for different types of arts. In a case study example, the Theatre Trust has expressed concerns that numerous theatre buildings in North England are facing the risk of closure and demolition by local authorities because maintaining them has become an issue (House of Commons, Culture Media, and Sports Committee 2011). The main reason cited by the Arts Council for such closures and demolition possibilities and the refusal of the Council to support residents’ efforts to save these theatre buildings is a lack of funding for such operations (UK Parliament 2010). This is sufficient evidence that lessened government funding of visual arts can trigger the closure of services and demolition of facilities used for these arts.
Loss of Cultural Expertise
Another implication of reduced government funding on visual arts is the significant loss of culture expertise in this sector. Crossik and Kaszynska (2016) suggest that arts create a space where scientific expertise can engage an amateur public on ethical, environmental, and political matters. In other words, art is a collective endeavour in which successful innovations draw on technical collaboration, shareable intercultural expertise, and active involvement of people. This helps in establishing synergies between multiple experts while encouraging their cooperative ambitions, openness, optimism, and innovative enthusiasm (Crossik and Kaszynska 2016; Mikić 2012; OMC Working Group 2014). When government funding on visual arts is reduced, such cultural expertise diminishes and eventually vanishes to the detriment of the cultural creativity of society. Also, cultural expertise relating to arts defines the intrinsic properties that form the basis for an individual’s cultural work to be considered a work of art (Verdaasdonk, Smelser, and Baltes 2001). What this means is that the loss of cultural expertise due to reduced government financing means a loss of the intrinsic cultural value attached to visual arts.
Weakening Of Future Audience Growth
The last implication of lessened local and central government funding on visual arts is the weakening and eventual disappearance of the growth of future audiences in this sector. When the government cuts its funding on arts, visual art centres and venues are closed down or demolished and their heritage ecosystem is weakened, causing audience engagement with them to diminish. Research by Keaney et al. (2007) established that arts empower their audiences by offering some space where these audiences congregate for economic, political, and social equality and the socially segregated and disenfranchised air their voices. Also, arts provide forums for heightened audience participation where audiences are more open to participation and responsiveness (O’Hagan and Duffy 1987). So, when government funding for visual arts is cut, audiences will be denied such experiences, and they will reduce their frequencies of visiting the art venues and centres. This will culminate in weak audience growth in this sector in the future.
Conclusion
This essay has focused on providing arguments for funding arts from the public purse and the implications of reducing government funding on arts. It has confirmed that arts should be publicly funded because of their economic and educational value and their contributions to cultural identity, quality of life, urban regeneration, and cultural expression. Further, the essay has indicated that the reduction of local and government funding on visual arts has serious implications. These implications include weakened heritage ecosystems, closure of art facilities, loss of career opportunities and cultural, social, economic, and human capital, and debilitated audience growth. While funding of arts is currently an area of serious political controversy and debate, this essay provides profound arguments that justify why arts should receive public funds and why current funding for visual arts should not be reduced.
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