Recent orders
History Of Tattooing
History Of Tattooing
Tattooing has been around for many years, spreading to different cultures, with variant meanings, yet when brought all together, tattooing shows remnants of a very diverse history. By the Merriam Webster’s Intermediate Dictionary tattoos are defined as marks or figures fixed upon the body using a needle to put ink under the skin, but to many cultures and civilizations of the world, they mean much more.
In the United States of America, tattooing has changed dramatically from the way it was once viewed. The stigma that once surrounded tattooing, usually condemning those who had them, has now evolved into an accepted pop culture. Those who usually wore the tattoos were often bikers and circus “freaks”, which gave the tattooing industry a bad reputation. Moreover, a particular biker group known as Hells Angels, wear their own Hells Angel symbol to show membership to the group (Midre). Furthermore, heavily tattooed Betty Brodbent, traveled with Ringling Brothers Circus in the 1930’s and was the star attraction (Midre). Tattooing to many is no longer seen as a desecration to the body, but as an accepted art form and a means for personal expression. Unfortunately, there are those who get tattoos for irrational and ridiculous reasons. Some get tattoos just because of how many people today have them and for most people who do get these tattoos, leave no meaning to them. So do all these people who are getting tattoos understand the purpose and meanings in the origination of tattooing?
History of Tattooing around the World
Many scientists believe that tattooing happened accidentally (Flamepoint).
They came up an idea that people injured themselves on pigment-carrying, sharp instruments or materials (Flamepoint). For example, sharp materials would include charcoaled branches from leftover fires or wooden spears/arrowheads hardened in fire, which cut the skin and trapped the pigment in the dermis (Flamepoint). Many see this as an understanding to why people have associated tattooing in the survival and healing of bad wounds (Flamepoint). Different cultures have different beliefs of where tattooing originated. The first proven evidence was found in 1991, showing that tattooing may have began in Italy near Austria, dating back to 4000 BC, where they found a man in permafrost (Flamepoint). Carbon dating suggested that he was 5,300 years old and was a shaman or someone holy of a tribe (Nudity). Shortly after, evidence was found proving tattoos were on the bodies of Egyptian mummies, dating back to 4,000 years ago (Nudity).
During this era, tattoos were applied to skin with sharp instruments holding pigment. Different cultures also used this practice and it spread from Egypt to Greece, Persia, Central Asia, and Arabia along the trade routes. In Greece, people used tattoos for communication amongst themselves, identifying spies, and also showing rank in tribes (Midre). Along these merchant routes the practice spread to China. In China, they believed that ones body is a precious gift from the parents and should never be adulterated by a tattoo (Chinapage). “Ci Pei” meaning “tattoo/exile”, was placed on a criminal’s face when a court found them guilty of a severe crime. These tattoos marked that person as a criminal for life (Chinapage). Even in China today, tattoos are more likely to be used to mark members of the underground criminal society (Chinapage). Romans also tattooed criminals and slaves (Priory).
From China, tattooing spread to Japan. In Japan they also used tattoos to mark criminals using a Chinese character that meant dog (midre). They also rejected the religious meanings of tattoos that many cultures used them for and turned towards the more graphical and ornamental practice (Midre). In reaction to the harsh laws of the Tokugawa government that only allowed royalty to wear embroidered clothing caused the poor to flaunt full body tattoo suits (Priory).
From Japan, tattoos spread to the Philippines and Pacific Islands. This is where Polynesians carried the tattoo culture across the Pacific Islands to New Zealand where it was most commonly known (Flamepoint). Later on, tattooing was then refined in the British Isles. The Norse, Danes, and Saxons created the family crest, which is still used today (Midre). However, in the Christian Bible, Leviticus 19:28, it states, “You shall not… tattoo any marks upon you” (Priory). Pope Hadrian I, reluctant to go against the teachings of the Bible, banned the art for many centuries (Priory).
With a jump in time, Samuel O’Riely, patented the first electric tattooing machine in America which made tattoos reasonably priced, readily available, and much more painless (Midre). However, tattooing had also lost a great deal of credibility during this stigmatic time because tattoos were portrayed by “freak shows” of circuses (Midre). Tattooing was so poorly viewed by many that it went underground for many years to keep its harsh critics quiet (Midre). Chatham Square in New York City became the birthplace of American style tattooing. Samuel O’Riely opened up a shop there with his apprentice Charlie Wagner (Midre). Although not popular throughout the country, tattooing flourished in Chatham Square (Midre). As a result of the Great Depression, the center of tattooing moved to Coney Island, and soon enough other shops were being set up across the country (Midre). Once again, ominous luck fell upon the world of tattooing after World War II, when Marlon Brando type bikers and juvenile delinquents wore them and an unfortunate outbreak of hepatitis in 1961 sent tattoo artists heading for the hills (Midre). Things did progress though, Lyle Tuttle, a very handsome and charming fellow helped change the many disapproving attitudes towards tattooing, by tattooing celebrity women (Midre).
“Tatu” & Tribal Tattooing Captain Hooke, a well known sailor, brought with him not only tattooing from different cultures on his ship to Europe, but the actual word we use today. He referred to the operation as “tattaw”, using for the first time the word “tattawing”, unlike when tattooing was originally referred to as painting or staining (Flampoint). Tattoo comes from the Tahitian word “tatu” meaning “to mark”(Flamepoint). Tattoo is also defined as the beating of military drums, which can be compared to the rhythmical humming of the actual tattooing gun used in parlors today. All of the different aspects of what the word means have contributed to forming the actual word we use today which is “tattoo”.
The natives of New Zealand, otherwise known as the Maori, mainly applied tattoos to the face (Moko) and the buttocks (Tattooarchive). The Maori derived their wood carving techniques and applied it to tattooing, by developing a chiseled design and rubbing ink into it (Tattooarchive). Once they developed a more conventional way of tattooing, Maori tattooing was seen far and wide in many museums and because of the unusual style, yet they were not only viewed by drawings and photographs, but by actual skin (Tattooarchive). The Maori had an unusual custom of removing and preserving the heads of tattooed chiefs after death (Tattooarchive). These heads would stay within the family and be an honored possession (Tattooarchive). Primarily, they had no commercial value, but once European explorers came over and saw these strange heads they wanted them for their museums (Tattooarchive). The saying goes, “Everything has a price”, and unfortunately this is true. The once honored heads were being sold off for ammunition, weapons, and iron implements (Tattooarchive). Soon enough the demand exceeded the supply and the population sadly depleted (Tattooarchive). War victim’s heads were part of the trade supply and poor slaves were mokoed (tattooed face) only to be murdered for their heads (Tattooarchive). Eventually this disgusting, dehumanizing practice was put to an end and ultimately faded away.
The Polynesians developed tattoos for marking tribal communities, families, and rank (Midre). Tattooing came to America and was used by the Mayans, Incas, and Aztecs. Other tribes and cultures such as the Kayan women had delicate hand tattoos like lacy gloves, looking like what henna is perceived to be today (Midre). The Dayak warriors also had hand tattoos and these tattoos were regarded with respect and assured the owners status for life (Midre). The Aniu of Western Asia used tattooing to show social status (Midre). For example, girls coming of age were marked to announce their place in society, as were the married women (Midre). In addition, the Aniu are noted for introducing tattooing to Japan and many other cultures (Midre). In Borneo, women were the tattoo artists, creating designs that indicated the owners station in life and what tribe they belonged to (Midre).
With the incessant changes in technology today, tattoos no longer have to be covered up with another tattoo in order for a person to disguise the old image. However, even with new technology, tattoos were meant to be permanent for a reason, just going to show that even the removal techniques of today, can never truly destroy the history one has made on their body. The removal techniques that have been invented include laser surgery, excision, and salabrasion. All of these techniques are costly, painful, and time consuming. Laser technology breaks up the ink into small fragments that are absorbed by the body’s immune system (Wilkinson 110). Laser treatment is very painful and breaks up the skin leaving it raw and bloody (110). Some lasers erase the color sequence, while others erase everything and this usually causes the skin to boil (110).
Another removal technique includes excision. This process is what dermatologists and plastic surgeons recommend people to get when removing a tattoo (111). In this process they cut away at the tattoo and replace the skinless area with skin from the thigh and buttocks (111).
The last technique is salabrasion and this is a process in which the surface of the skin is rubbed with a chemical that peels away the skin. Even with these removal techniques, scars and certain colors that are hard to get rid of like yellows and greens are left behind. Tattoos were meant to be permanent, not to be removed. If one decides to get a tattoo, one must be very careful in choosing a design and deciding where to get it.
Each culture contributed to one another in many different ways in tattooing with unusual designs, special meanings, unique styles, and bizarre techniques. With the sharing of ideas and communication among diverse civilizations, has formed what we view tattooing as it is today. Its extensive history is told throughout the world starting from the beginning of time leading to the present, told in different languages, through different cultures, each story told in its own way, celebrating the birth of tattooing.
Bibliography:
Area of Study Paper
Area of Study Paper
Zyell Griffin
IDS 201-1003: Introduction to Interdisciplinary Studies
Dr. Kendra Gage
October 1, 2022
Areas of Study Paper
Introduction
It is fascinating studying sociology and kinesiology. I chose these two disciplines because I find them helpful professionally and personally. Sociology studies people’s behavior and its impact on society (Lahire, 2020). On the other hand, kinesiology studies body motion and its health implications (Knudson, 2014). These two fields, in my opinion, are essential to comprehending how individuals engage with their surroundings and how such engagement may affect their health and well-being. How kinesiology might be utilized to fight or prevent ailments like obesity or cardiovascular diseases is something that genuinely interests me. Sociology, in my opinion, is crucial for comprehending how social issues like prejudice and deprivation can affect one’s health. Understanding these fields will help create interventions that enhance change for the better.
Foundations and Principles
Kinesiology is a branch of science that has its roots in examining human mobility and, thus, the elements that affect it. Kinesiology studies how the body turns and how regular exercise impacts quality and well-being to enhance human performance and wellness (Knudson & Brusseau, 2021). On the other hand, the research into a human social activity, including the beginnings, structure, and evolution of societies, forms the basis and core ideas of sociology. Understanding how individuals interact with one another and how society operates is the goal of (Thompson et al., 2016).
The causes, methods, and effects of physical activity are studied from various perspectives by kinesiology students (Knudson & Brusseau, 2021). For instance, they might look into how muscles generate energy, how joints and cartilage work, how energy is expended throughout exercise, and how exercise can affect a person’s well-being. The societal and cultural settings of aerobic fitness might also be studied by kinesiology students, including how other societies perceive and practice physical fitness and how physical exercise can be utilized to advance revolutionary progress.
Sociology and kinesiology are both dynamic, ever-evolving fields. To stay abreast of the most recent findings and advancements, experts in various disciplines frequently redefine their discipline (Repko et al.,2019). For instance, professional in Collage of Applied Health Sciences define Kinesiology as “the study of human movement, it is a division of physiology that addresses a variety of subjects, such as motor coordination, restoration, and biomechanics” (Collage of Applied Health Sciences, 2022). Usually, search and teaching are major focuses of the field of kinesiology. On the other hand, defining Sociology as, according to Repko et al. (2019), the study of human social behavior; it is a scientific discipline that examines a variety of subjects, such as criminality, household, and professional training. Sociologists examine individual interactions using both qualitative and numerical methodologies.
Top Experts
Some of the top experts in Kinesiology include William James, a renowned scientist and psychotherapist who made significant contributions to the field of kinesiology. His contribution to the functionalism hypothesis, which contends that the brain is a sophisticated process of numerous interrelated pieces, made him most famous. Another expert in this field of study is Dr. Michael R. Deschenes, whose studies are focused on biomechanics of human motion and their muscles produce energy. Also, Dr. Scott C. Lynch, whose studies are based on physiology of muscle fatigue as well, how the muscles adopt changes is a top expert in Kinesiology.
Top experts in Sociology include Jean Piaget, Sigmund Freud, and Karl Marx. Jean Piaget was a prominent sociological thinker and Swiss psychologist. His study on the idea of intellectual growth, which contends that childhood development growth occurs in stages, is what made him most famous. Sigmund Freud was a neurologist from Austria who made significant contributions to sociology and his contributions to the sociological theory, which contends that the individual interaction is a complex social structure of numerous interlinked pieces, made him most famous. Lastly, Karl Marx was a German philosopher who claimed that history is affected by economic status and social status, and hence, class struggle determines change.
Protocols for Each Discipline
There are various protocols that ought to be observed in kinesiology. Firstly, exercises should be performed with proper form and technique to prevent injury and to guarantee that the workouts are successful in producing the intended effects (Knudson & Brusseau, 2021). Secondly, appropriate warm-up and cool-down intervals prior to and following physical exercise (Knudson & Brusseau, 2021). This aids in injury prevention and enhances restoration. Furthermore, having the right amount of rest and recuperation time between sessions is another protocol that must be observed in Kinesiology since it aids in avoiding overexertion by allowing the body to produce and repair muscle fibers (Van Hooren, & Peake, 2018).
Sociology also entails a variety of protocols to be performed. They entail the analysis of social processes using scientific methodology ensures that the study is precise and impartial (Little et al., 2016). Secondly, the use of theoretical perspectives to the interpretation of data is another protocol required in sociology as it enables a deeper comprehension of the complexity of the social activity. Thirdly, adhering to ethical standards when doing research which safeguards the rights and well-being of research subjects is a protocol that must adhered to during social studies (Israel, 2014).
Professionals in Each Discipline
Kinesiology, the scientific study of human movement, can see professionals in it operate in hospitals, rehabilitation clinics, and fitness facilities, just a few of the places where experts in this sector may serve. They might also pursue careers in research or education. On the other hand, Sociology is the scientific study of social behavior. It can see its professionals work in governmental institutions, charities, and commercial enterprises, as just a few of the places where specialists in this subject may find employment. For individuals who hold degrees in the field, kinesiology and sociology provide a wide range of professional options like the above-listed fields.
Issues/Problems Investigated by the Professionals
Professionals in kinesiology and sociology often look at a range of concerns and difficulties. Specialists in kinesiology, for instance, would look into how various types of physical activity might affect people’s general health, whereas those in sociology might look into how various social variables can affect people’s quality of life and well-being. Professionals in sociology and kinesiology can look at how various kinds of activity can affect people’s psychological and physical health and how various social elements can affect an individual’s emotional health and overall well-being.
Subfields of the Disciplines
Within the fields of sociology and kinesiology, there exist subfields. Biomechanics, exercise science, motor coordination and regulation and experimental psychology are all fields of study in kinesiology. On the other hand, social stratification, social inequality, ethnic background, and family are all subfields of sociology (Little et al., 2016).
Current Hot Topics in the Disciplines
The fields of sociology and kinesiology both have a few current problems or themes. The significance of physical exercise in maintaining health and preventing disease is a hot topic in kinesiology. The social factors that affect health is a trending issue in sociology. These two hot topics in these two disciplines have raised eyebrows in recent days torching every corner of concern for professionals and state governments.
Scholarly Article Journals for Each Discipline
One scholarly publication in kinesiology is called “Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise” which is authored by Lippincott Williams and Wilkins in 2018. The implications of physical exertion on the well-being of people are among the topics covered throughout this journal’s articles on exercise physiology and fitness training. One of the top journals in the field of sociology is “The American Journal of Sociology” authored Elisabeth S. Clemens in 2017. It disseminates unique research across the spectrum of sociology, including a particular emphasis on social concept, practice, and empirical review.
Professional Association in Each Discipline
“The American Sociological Association” is a scholarly and professional organization that supports sociology-related research and instruction. The institution’s objectives include expanding sociology theory and understanding, encouraging sociology’s applicability to social matters, and fostering sociologists’ career progression. On the other hand, “The American College of Sports Medicine” is a corporate and academic organization that supports kinesiology-related study and research. The organization strives to advance our understanding of how exercise and movement benefit our overall well-being as well as foster the professionalism of kinesiologists.
How and Why I Chose Kinesiology and Sociology
I am interested in learning how these fields of study, kinesiology and sociology, might aid my comprehension of human behavior. The science of human motion, kinesiology can shed light on how humans interact with their respective surroundings. The study of individual group interactions, sociology, has the potential to comprehend better the way people interact with one another, which is how I arrived at focusing on them.
These fields can support one another and are crucial to comprehending human behavior. For instance, kinesiology and sociology can aid in understanding how people move across space and engage with one another in social structure. I think that learning about sociology and kinesiology together will help me to get a comprehensive knowledge of social interaction. I am curious about how these fields can better my understanding of the world, and I think they will be useful to me in my work.
References
Clemens S. E. “The American Journal of Sociology.” (2017).
Collage of Applied Health Sciences. (2022). Kinesiology and Nutrition. Retrieved 1 October 2022, from https://ahs.uic.edu/kinesiology-nutrition/#kinesiology.
Israel, M. (2014). Research ethics and integrity for social scientists: Beyond regulatory compliance. Sage.
Knudson, D. (2014). What is a kinesiology journal? Comprehensive Psychology, 3, 03-CP. https://doi.org/10.2466/03.CP.3.20Knudson, D. V., & Brusseau, T. A. (Eds.). (2021). Introduction to Kinesiology: Studying Physical Activity. Human Kinetics.
Lahire, B. (2020). Sociology at the individual level, psychologies and neurosciences. European Journal of Social Theory, 23(1), 52-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368431018809548Little, W., McGivern, R., & Kerins, N. (2016). Introduction to sociology-2nd Canadian edition. BC Campus.
Repko, A. F., Szostak, R., & Buchberger, M. P. (2019). Introduction to interdisciplinary studies. Sage Publications.
Thompson, W. E., Hickey, J. V., & Thompson, M. L. (2016). Society in focus: An introduction to sociology. Rowman & Littlefield.
Van Hooren, B., & Peake, J. M. (2018). Do we need a cool-down after exercise? A narrative review of the psychophysiological effects and the effects on performance, injuries and the long-term adaptive response. Sports Medicine, 48(7), 1575-1595. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-018-0916-2Williams Lippincott & Wilkins. “Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.” (2018).
Ethics 4 Case Study
Ethics 4 Case Study
Before attempting to determine if the city of New Haven acted responsibly in rejecting test results on the grounds of lack of minority representation, it would be important to examine the race issue in this case. Normally, it is a very unsettling experience when a racial issue concerning a promotion, a sacking, or any other form of Corporate America function, emerges. It does not matter whether the individuals concerned are African Americans, Hispanic, Asian, or third world immigrants because the main issue you would need to confront, from a managerial perspective, is if the individual is really racist or is it the situation that is racist. In most cases the situation is hardly racist and the only racist thing in the whole matter is the person claiming to have been discriminated.
Job applications on the other hand rely on the applicants’ qualifications for the relevant position as it is by these qualifications that the best candidate is determined. Without relevant certification or a degree to your name, you would hardly land that job, regardless of the number of years you have spent in that field, or your racial background. This leaves the work-force managers in Corporate America in a tough position of deciding who to hire besides other equally tough decisions like who to promote and, dreadfully, who gets the pink slip. With regards to the firefighters’ case in New Haven, CT, there were more pertinent issues than racism and bias testing that made the rejection of the test unjustified. The need for a diverse workforce does not necessarily mean that working standards should be compromised in order to meet affirmative action demands.
The issue involved a 2003 initiative by the New Haven Fire Department to promote its employees to Lieutenant and Captain positions through written and oral examinations according to the requirements of the state civil service and the state law. The Fire Department chose an Illinois based company, IOS, to set the examinations. Those who qualified for promotion on the basis of having passed the test were seven whites and two Hispanics. None of the black candidates qualified.
The results were rejected by the New Haven Civil Service Board on the advice of the city’s attorney, Thomas Ude. The white and Hispanic firefighters sued the Board seeking to have the results certified claiming that they were denied their 14th Amendment rights and cited the Civil Rights Act of 1964 among other laws. It is important to note that African Americans make up 37.4 percent of the New Haven population yet the highest scoring African American in the test for captaincy ranked 16th with twelve whites and three Hispanics ahead. In the exam for Lieutenant position the best performing African American ranked 14th.
Any manager who upholds values and ethics would readily agree that no employee should be a victim of workplace discrimination on the basis of his or her racial background. However, the issue of promotion is based on merit which can only be ascertained by how well the employee qualifies for the position. Qualification for promotion should therefore be treated separately from racial issues in as much as we would want to have a more diversified workforce. The test, as it was proven in court, was designed in a way that ensured broad racial participation in its content as well as administration. It was also proved that the process was open, free, and fair. Based on the hearings, there was no strong evidence pointing at a disparate-impact violation and therefore the city did not act reasonably in rejecting the tests solely because of racial disparity in the results.
The rejection of the test results by the city of New Haven was simply unreasonable. The promotions were meant to be earned on the basis of performance and potential to competently shoulder future additional responsibilities. The promotion criteria did not include demographics or skin color but simply the ability to perform which could only be judged through the specially designed test. Being a citizen of the United States with minority roots does not mean that one should take advantage of the situation and claim for preferential treatment. In Corporate America, one has to be ready to compete for better opportunities and positions by merit and not by citing one’s ancestry or heritage as the major prerequisite for being considered for the every available opportunity.
It should also be noted that all the candidates from all the races involved had studied for the test for months and at considerable financial and personal expenses. Thus the injury the City caused to the qualified candidates by rejecting the test on racial statistics rather than on performance was more severe. For example, the leading plaintiff in the case, Frank Ricci, stated in an affidavit that he was dyslexic and had therefore to study for as long as 13 hours a day for the promotion exam. He further had to pay someone to convert materials from textbooks into audiotapes, make flash cards, and join a study group. His efforts paid and he was among those who passed the test. From a managerial point of view, Frank Ricci’s efforts to pass the test are a reflection of his dedication and commitment to the job and he rightly deserved to be promoted regardless of the racial status of the test results.
It can also be accurately argued that the City’s rejection was in support of penalizing non-minority workers in favor of minorities in the promotion process. The court showed sympathy for the Caucasian victims of reverse-discrimination of affirmative action initiatives. Remedial action for past crimes should not justify practicing of racially motivated politics (Klein, 2009). An effective manager should never shy off from confronting the legal and ethical question of whether affirmative action legally or morally justifies present racial discrimination of a non-minority group in order to make redress for, or even remedy, past discrimination against a minority group. Actions aimed at making redress for past racial discrimination, for example giving promotions on the basis of race, should be supported by strong evidence showing that an injustice had been committed (Appling, 2010).
The case also presents a challenge to employers whereby rejecting the test in order to avoid discrimination lawsuits by minorities who failed to pass the test leads to disparate discrimination lawsuits from non-whites who passed the test. Testing, educational and performance requirements have always been a cause for legal problems for employers. However, one should always remember that “it is not unlawful for the employer to hire or promote employees on the basis of results of professionally developed ability tests provided that the tests are not designed to be used in a discriminatory fashion” (Cavico and Mujtaba, 2008, p. 98). The employer is expected to understand that tests are actually predictors of an employee’s work behavior and performance.
There are two key factors that managers must consider in giving tests. The first one is that the test must be related to the job and in consistency with the business. Secondly, they must ensure that the test uses valid and non-discriminatory criteria. A test that is designed to be race-neutral and meets the two aforementioned requirements should not present a problem to the employer regardless of whether it meets the employees’ expectations or those of affirmative action goals. Rejecting a properly designed test on affirmative action demands only ends up attracting reverse discrimination lawsuits from non-minorities who passed the test.
In conclusion, a managerial perspective on promotions should be more concerned with the ability and qualification of the candidates as depicted by their performance in the relevant tests. Where there is no cause to show that disparate or impact discrimination was exercised, the demands of affirmative action should not take precedence over a company’s pursuit for excellence. In fulfilling the need for diversity in the workforce, employers should ensure that the tests they use are free from any racial or gender bias and are in fact job-related (Gilbert, Stead & Ivancevich, 1999).
Racial impact should be one of the foremost considerations when choosing or designing a test. The potential for disparate impact needs to be addressed early enough to avoid lawsuits from non-minority candidates who pass a test that is later rejected as in the New Haven case. This process should not just be concentrated on hiring and promotions only but should be, even more significantly, be applied in job terminations too. If tests for hiring, promotion, and work termination are simply revised to favor minorities, then employers will still have to confront lawsuits on reverse discrimination from non-minorities.
References
Appling, L. (2010). Recent Development: Ricci v. DeStefano. Harvard Civil Rights-CivilLiberties Law Journal, 45, 147-166.
Cavico, F. J. & Mujtaba, B. G. (2008). Legal challenges for the global manager andentrepreneur. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
Gilbert, J. A., Stead, B. A. & Ivancevich, J.M. (1999). Diversity management: A neworganizational paradigm. Journal of Business Ethics, 21(1), 61-76.
Klein, L. (2009). Ricci v. DeStefano: “Fanning the Flames” of reverse discrimination in CivilService Selection. Duke Journal of Constitutional Law and Public Policy, 4, 391- 405.