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Education-Article Analysis
Article Analysis
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Institution Affiliation
It is evident that the article talks about instructional methods or programs that can be used in assisting children with disability to improve their learning skills. In addition, a classroom setting is used not only to define teaching and learning but also to elaborate the provision of instruction to children with disability on different setting such as at homes amid other contexts. Therefore, “classroom” is used as a generalization overview of these settings. As an Early Childhood Special Educator, I consider that the article tries to address the limitations in instructional delivery that children with disability face as well it offers credible solutions to the challenges noted in previous research or anticipated challenges.The article clearly deliberates on the steps that special childhood educators should implement so as curb the current challenges that both the children and the educators face as they try to learn and teach respectively. The first significance of this state of research is that it offers an understanding that naturalistic procedures are vital in classroom learning amid children with disabilities. The educators should be able to incorporate “children lead” in curriculum because it has proved in the past that it’s one of the best instructional naturalistic practices.Since, there is lack of clear embedding instructional support services so far, I consider that future research should consider equipping this idea with credible information in order to cushion the problems that children with disabilities go through in the learning process. Solutions to the challenges presented should also be on board in order to narrow gaps or limitations in ECSE research. Social understanding of these children development stages should also be studied in greater perspective in order to determine the best instructional programs to use.
References
Revsine, L., Collins, D. W., Johnson, W. B., Collins, D. W., & Johnson, W. B. (2005). Financial reporting & analysis. New York: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Educational, social and economic reforms
Educational, social and economic reforms
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Describe the progressive movement in terms of social development and educational changes. Give specific attention to the educational theories spawned at this time, and to the proponents of each theory. Explain the extent of their success and/or failure.
During early years of the twentieth century, United States faced a lot of problems ranging from economic, social and cultural changes. Consequently, Americans had to devise ways of coping with the aforementioned challenges that were brought by modernization. A reform movement was therefore formed in the U.S. to counter the problems. Even though the progressives had a universal feeling that the government had to be involved in entirety in solving the problems, they had differed in their perception of the problems as well as the approach to solve them. Modernization enhanced the availability of scientific knowledge on human nature which prompted the Social progressives to demand modification of the moral values as well as the social norms across the United States. The universal idea of delivering social justice to all Americans via quality education culminated to education progressivism. Educational progressives believed that humans were social animals hence could learn best in company of other people. This was in line with John Dewey’s theory of learning that emphasized on learning through real world experience and not a mere reading and drilling of the students. Dewey is one of the proponents of the social justice system that revolutionized education system in the U.S. He argued that children should be taught based on the four aspects of education including intellectual, artistic, moral as well as social facets (Berube, 2008). Moreover, he recommended learning through experience as the best learning style. In his constructivism theory, Dewey argued that students built knowledge through their ways of thought as well as experience, concepts that are necessary in any scientific discovery. Dewey’s contribution to the education system in the U.S has since taken the country storm as reforms in the system are stunning (Berube, 2008).
2. Survey and evaluate the efforts to expand educational opportunities and provide equal educational justice to all children during the Great Depression and through the era of World War II. Be sure to discuss New Deal programs in detail, showing how each effort did or did not help the specific group for whom a remedy was intended.
Stakeholders in the U.S education sector have done commendable work in expanding the education system so as to create educational opportunities to all the students irrespective of their race, class or origin. To begin with, the Southern States formulated a plan that was meant to enhance unbiased access to education by both the white and African American students. The plan dubbed ‘Freedom of choice desegregation plan’ aimed at allowing the African American students access to the white-man schools without discrimination. Delkab County School for instance adopted the system in early 60s. However, this system had little success as few Africans managed to join the White man’s institutions (Manzer, 2003). Besides, the government formed Liberal legislation initiatives such as the National and immigration Act of 1965 in an attempt to allow access to education by immigrants from other countries other than U.S. Such legislation had a remarkable success as the number of international students from Caribbean as well as African American increased tremendously. Moreover, through increased globalization, upgrading education to international standards as well as increased access to information about educational institutions in the U.S. the students are motivated (Manzer, 2003). This legislation was preceded by legislation on the universal right of students. In 1948 education was included as a universal right in the declaration of the aforementioned year on human rights. This facilitated access to education by all the students regardless of student’s affiliation. Additionally, the introduction of free education to all opened the avenue for education access by students who were unable to afford cost of education. Each state was expected to provide public schooling service to its citizens after the reconstruction following the World War 11. Generally, the aforementioned initiatives led to enormous increase in the number of students accessing education in the U.S.
3. The education of the minority population in American has been problematic. Discuss the education of African Americans from colonial times to the present. Include the debate between Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois. Describe problems that have been resolved and those that continue to exist. In addition, describe the shifting attitude towards education Native Americans. Do you think the problem of providing adequate educational services to these groups has been resolved effectively? Why or why not?
Unlike their counterparts such as the Jews, African Americans have been denied their basic rights in the U.S since colonial times until reconstruction. Provision of equal education services to the African Americans is one such basic right the group has been denied since colonial times. To begin with, in the late 1980s, a group of urban school districts carried out a research to analyze the performance of the African American males in the United States education institutions. Such an institution is the Milwaukee public school which presented horrible statistics of the group achievements. According to Milwaukee, about 80% of the African American male students in the school attained below C average, and half were suspended. Additionally, slightly over 93% were expelled between 1978-1985 (Manzer, 2003). The investigators therefore proposed setting up Black male academies as a solution to the dilemma. They argued that the unique needs of the students in question required similarly unique curriculum, structure, and pedagogy to counter the problem. Washington was in support of this idea believing that the curriculum for the African American students should encompass training on mathematics as well as basic literacy. However, the opponents argued that segregation and gender exclusivity were unconstitutional Ladson-Billings, 2006). American intellectual and civil rights pioneer W.E.B. Du Bois argues that the students should have access to a liberal arts curriculum encompassing a full range of opportunities obtainable at the best educational institutions in the U.S.
Such intentions to segregate the schools re-emerged in late 80s but in a different version this time. For instance, the African American teachers were recruited by the institutions to take care of the special needs of the African American students in such institutions. In 1954 The African American activists had a belief that by desegregating the schools, there were high possibilities that the African American students would access quality education equally compared to their white counterparts (Ladson-Billings, 29006). This notion was never to be as the activists realized it had done more harm than good to the access to education by the African American students. The education opportunity Act made it illegal for institutions to segregate the students based on their race. This was further confirmed by the Supreme Court which ruled against segregation. However, the proponents of segregation seem determined to pursue their racial prejudice (Manzer, 2003). For instance, ion 1953 employers of the African American teachers dished out letters to the teachers noticing them of potential sacking ahead of the Supreme Court ruling. It is noteworthy that such discrimination seems far from over. Recently, the education opportunity Act was amended to pave way for opening of black male academies in the U.S. According to the amendment proposal, certain degree of contingency and exemptions will be allowed to those who want to open the schools. Bridging the gap between the white community and the African American community as well as ending the racial discrimination is still in limbo (Ladson-Billings, 2006).
4. Discuss the proposals for educational reforms made during the 1960 and 1970 Be sure to discuss the Elementary and Secondary Education Act or 1965 and the War on Poverty as well as attempts to reform education for various different groups. Be specific about the long-term effects of these reforms – how successful were they?
The United States government proposed Liberal legislation initiatives such as the National and immigration Act of 1965 in an attempt to allow access to education by immigrants from other countries other than U.S. The piece of legislation had a remarkable success as the number of international students from Caribbean as well as African American increased enormously. The Southern States also drafted proposal on plans that were intended to enhance unbiased access to education by both the white and African American students. The plan dubbed ‘Freedom of choice desegregation plan’ aimed at allowing the African American students access to the white-man schools without discrimination. Delkab County School for instance adopted the system in early 60s.
However, this system had little success as few Africans managed to join the White man’s institutions. The elementary and secondary Act of 1965 is an act which finances both the primary as well as secondary education but detests the formation of a national curriculum (Manzer, 2003). The funds may be used in financing professional development, parental involvement promotion as well as supporting educational programs. The Act therefore guides the allocation and utilization of education funds by educational institutions in enhancing education in their areas of jurisdiction. War on poverty is a legislation enacted in 1964 to counter the heightened national poverty levels experienced at that time. This legislation prompted the national congress to pass the economic opportunity Act which regulated the application of Federal funds meant to eradicate poverty through the establishment of HYPERLINK “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Economic_Opportunity” o “Office of Economic Opportunity” Office of Economic Opportunity. This piece of legislation was very effective in reduction of poverty levels. For instance, such poverty levels dropped from 17.3% when the economic opportunity Act was implemented to 11.1% in 1973 (Manzer, 2003).
5. Describe the disparity of per student services between those in major cities and those in suburban areas. Explain the rationale of political and educational leaders to this condition? What do you feel is the basic cause of this disparity? How would you remedy it?
During the 1960-2000 periods, African Americans just like their white counterparts were migrating from interior black-dominated regions to the suburbs for search of better life including better housing, better health facilities, and even better education for their children. It is worth mentioning that the resource distribution across the whole county is greatly uneven with urban areas getting lions share and the rural areas the meager one (Ladson-Billings, 2006). The schools in urban areas are therefore well funded than in the major cities than the suburban regions. Consequently, the students pursuing their education in the urban schools are more privileged compared to their counterparts in the suburban areas. Political as well as educational leaders are involved in decision making that directly affect the allocation of resources to the schools across the country. Political leaders for instance are mandated to lobby for the reforms in all sectors of governance in case of the disparities in a sector (Ladson-Billings, 2006). Educational leaders on the other hand are supposed to implement the reforms so as to enhance the equal provision of quality education to both the urban as well as the suburban students. Causes of the aforementioned disparities are varied but the basic cause may be as a result of poor management or lack of political will. Leaders are basically involved in formulating policies that guide the allocation of resources to the various sectors and department. The leaders should therefore consider equitable distribution of resources in the educational sector to avoid the disparities witnessed between the urban schools and the suburban institutions (Ladson-Billings, 29006). Educational leaders on the other hand should properly manage the funds allocated to them to offset insufficiencies.
Reference List:
Berbe, C. (2008). The unfinished quest: the plight of progressive science education in the age of
standards. New York: IAP.
Ladson-Billings, G. & Tare, W, (2006). Education research in the public interest: social justice,
action, and policy. New York: Teachers College Press.
Manzer, R. (2003). Educational regimes and Anglo-American democracy. Toronto: University of
Toronto Press.
Educational Tracking
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Educational Tracking
Since public education was popularized in the United States, the school system has been the ground of breeding for the country’s future. All different types of people are being produced ranging from engineers, doctors, teachers, politicians, among others. There are some educational systems that will help the students excel and some that need improvement. Educational tracking is technique used by schools to separate students by academic ability. Students are often unfairly tracked by race, culture, and economic status.
National Education Association (NEA) is an organization that was once a proponent of educational tracking when it was initially proposed and applied in 1980s and 1990s. This support was tied to certain reasons. Educational tracking was once extremely common in the English speaking nations in the 1980s and 1990s. For one reason, the brainchild concept that led to its birth was much convincing and this encouraged NEA to view it as a praiseworthy practice hence supported it. The excerpt, “Tracking persisted and became more problematic as students in the lower tracks received instruction more often from the least-qualified teachers. While tremendous effort was done to improve teaching and the profession; it remained business as usual for most teachers. The NEA preserved the status quo” (Hallinan 86) points out how NEA deeply embraced the system. Just like other organizations, which supported educational tracking, NEA also considered tracking as vibrant in outlining foundation of the education, just as was thought of in England and Wales till the 70s and Ireland until just recently. The argument amongst this quarter was “it allowed teachers to provide effective instruction because they can directly focus their teaching to each student’s ability level” (Kulik and Chen-Lin 13).
National Education Association viewed the gains that came with tracking as immense. The organization supported the tracking system, thereby concurring with the observation that when all students in a cluster are at the same stage, the teacher can plan the rate of teaching to counterpart the requirements of the students and can, therefore, offer more singleton concentration. For example, “a group of high skills students may move faster and cover more material in a shorter time than a group of lower skills students with whom the teacher may have to repeat material and go at a slower pace” (Kulik and Chen-Lin 19). Finally, the organization supported the system because, in its view, it was to give United States a chance to create a unique education system that had never been seen before. This is echoed in “Educators NEA like broadly support the practice of tracking in its modern form. Teachers find that tracking facilitates instruction by making it easier to gear lessons to the ability level of the whole class” (Hallinan 103).
Though the educators’ body was for tracking initially, the controversy that followed soon made it rethink its stand. These were not hugely different from the reasons that were floated by others who were agitating for its replacement. At the time, NEA was reconsidering it stands on the system, negative attitudes towards the system were on the rise from a different side of the divide that at one time encouraged it. Similar to other bodies that were against it, the main reason that led to decline of NEA’s support was that the criteria used to track students into different groups, such as standardized tests, are themselves flawed, and can have a negative effect on students’ access to education, morale and self-esteem (Kulik and Chen-Lin 27). The general argument in the public domain “tracking, especially in practice, created greater learning opportunities for high-performing students at the expense of their lower-performing peers” (Hallinan 131) was seriously considered and was a sign of the downfall of educational tracking. Social revolution also caused a change of heart in NEA. This is particularly depicted in, “The school system was further challenged by social revolution. Teacher unions, the disabled, students with limited English proficiency, minorities, and women began to demand fair treatment in schools” (Hallinan 159). Lastly, the institution went against the system because, segregation caused inadequate interaction among students and was more of a hindrance to students ability to learn from their colleagues, than a blessing.
There were varied reasons as to why educational tracking was introduced. Its advocates noted that tracking would amplify or enhance the accomplishment of students since the teachers would be allowed to concentrate on instruction. It is noteworthy that when teachers are instructing a group of students who have relatively similar abilities, they would customize the speed of instruction according to the needs of the students. Proponents of this educational system also felt that this educational system was beneficial to all students as it allowed them to continue with education at their rate of learning. This means “the bright students would not be held back by those whose learning ability is low” (Garrity 13). Those who were not bright would also not be left behind by those that have greater ability than them. Since all students are given the opportunity to excel in their respective classes, their self esteem would rise. “Talented students especially stand to benefit from the tracked system since there is an incentive to excel” (Kulik 26). As much as tracking for ordinary instruction may not make any real difference in the scholastic achievement of students with average or low ability, it would produce considerable gains for students who are gifted in tracks that are specially designed to cater for the talented and gifted. In essence, “tracking met the needs of students who were highly gifted since they would be with their peers who have similar intellectual aptitude thereby becoming appropriately challenged and view their abilities in a realistic manner” (Kulik 34).
Moreover, having in mind that tracking separates students according to their abilities; the work of students would only be pitted against that of peers with similar abilities. This, therefore, averts the possibility of lowering one’s self-esteem that may result if they are pitted against the work of students with higher abilities than theirs. In addition, the egos of students with high abilities would be checked as they would be compared with the work of students with similar abilities. Since there exists a positive correlation between high academic achievement and high self-esteem, academic success of the students would be promoted.
Advocates of the education system also noted that it enhanced the success of students of high abilities. Studies showed that high-ability students who were in tracked classes performed better than their counterparts in non-tracked classes. In essence, scholars recommended that high-ability students spend most of their time in school with peers who have similar abilities. In the 80s and 90s, all ability levels showed a moderate improvement in the attitude towards the subject material. Tracking also “encouraged students who had low abilities to increase their participation in class since they would be separated from the intimidation of students with high abilities” (Tom 89). In addition, the proponents viewed the education system as effective in directing students towards certain areas in the labor markets.
As much as tracking had considerable positive aspects, most people do not use it today. This is because of some of the limitations that inhibited its effectiveness, especially touching on the composition of tracks. It is noteworthy that, in reality, there was no homogeneity in the tracks. In this case, some of the educational tracking system’s potential benefits could not be exploited fully. It is noteworthy that, “heterogeneity could be created over time in classes that were homogenous initially” (Tom 79). In essence, some systems allow students to be evaluated periodically to ensure that students with similar abilities are kept together.
One of the key reasons as to why many people do not use this system is because it influences attitudes of students as pertaining to other students. Studies show “students would be more apt at being friends with peers in their tracks than in other tracks”. Having in mind that “there is overrepresentation of minority and low-class students in the low tracks while Asians and the Whites dominate high tracks, the system would discourage interactions among students in these groups”, (Tom 123). However, no research whatsoever has shown any benefit for low tracks’ students from the interaction.
In addition, tracking may lead to stigmatization of students with low abilities. In some instances, the stigmatization impacts negatively on the academic performance of the student and influences his attitudes. “Studies show that, low achieving students in tracked classes stand higher likelihood of believing that there was nothing they could do about their fate than their counterparts in non-tracked classes”, (Jeanie and Marisa 87). However, proponents of the system opine that this results from the fact that their teachers impress on them a rigid mindset rather than an intrinsic attribute of the tracking system itself. In essence, teachers who enhance a mindset of growth would stimulate the students to pursue academic excellence regardless of the system.
Studies also showed that, the low-tracks were primarily composed of students from low-income families while the upper tracks were dominated by those students who hailed from families that are well-up. In essence, scholars opine that the placement of minority and poor students disproportionately in low tracks may not be a reflection of their learning abilities. “In addition, studies show that there is a disproportionate appointment of teachers in low tracks” (Tom 87). In most cases, teachers of the highest status are assigned to high-track classes while the less-experienced teachers are assigned to teach low-track classes. It is noteworthy that teachers in high-track classes are more enthusiastic and better in teaching and providing explanations than low-track classes’ teachers.
In addition, scholars also noted that there were variations in the curricula provided to the different tracks. “While acceleration and enrichment of curricula was considered a key benefit to talented and gifted students, the lessons that were taught to students in law track classes usually lacked comprehensiveness and engagement that is found in high-track classes” (Tom 46). This is a reflection of their aptness for remedial nature and is disadvantageous to the low-track students. This is because they cannot be accepted in colleges since they do not have the necessary skills and knowledge that high-track students possess. “In addition, teachers in high-track classes taught concepts and used course materials that required far-reaching critical-thinking skills”, (Jeanie and Marisa 87). This is converse to low-track teachers who draw heavily from their workbooks and usually do not assign work that would necessitate critical thinking. Overall, the curricula pertaining to high-track courses are more in-depth and intensive than those that are taught in low-track courses. “It is noteworthy that teachers spend less time addressing issues pertaining to discipline in high-track classrooms compared to low-track classes”, (Jeanie 67). There have been frequent concerns about the connection between perceived behavioral concerns and low-track students. “In such instances, teachers usually suggest that promotion of proper student behavior requires more time than development of independent learning and critical thinking”, (Jeanie 98).
Possible ways of fixing educational tracking to ensure that all students benefit
It is evident that educational tracking benefits high-ability students than low-track students in varied ways. This, however, does not undermine the advantages with which the system comes. In essence, the complete elimination of the system may be unnecessary. There are varied ways in which educational tracking may be fixed so that all the concerned students can benefit. “Scholars recommend that cooperative models of learning be incorporated as they have been proved beneficial, especially to students who have little or no success in classes that are organized around conventional instructional approaches” (Welner and Burris 45). These methods include the following.
Learning together: In this case, students work in heterogeneous groups of four or five kids on assignments in order to come up with a one-group product. “In essence, the evaluation and rewarding of students would be based on the single product or a blend of their performance, as well as the group’s overall performance” (Kulik 67).
Jigsaw: In this case, heterogeneous groups would be created and each of their members assigned responsibility for a certain section of a subject. “Members of varied groups but working on similar sections would meet to discuss the assigned topics. They would then go back to their original groups and teach their team mates on the sections in which they have expertise”, (Welner and Burris 56). However, there would be individual evaluation of the students via quizzes, and projects among other forms of evaluation.
Group Investigation: In group investigation, “small, heterogeneous groups assume considerable responsibility of making decisions as to the information that they will gather, their internal organization, as well as the communication of the lessons, learnt to their classmates”, (Jeanie and Marisa 35).
Jigsaw II: – This has similarities with the original jigsaw. “Every student is provided with common information. The students would then break into expert groups where they would learn certain subtopics, with the incorporation of team recognition on the basis of team scores” (Garrity 11). Individual high scorers and team winners would be recognized, on top of the individual scores and grades.
In conclusion, educational tracking has been raising a lot of controversy. It is evident that it comes with considerable advantages and disadvantages. More often than not, the system has been benefiting high class students, most of who come from well-to-do families, while low-track students continue languishing with poor quality education. However, there are ways in which the system could be remedied so that all students can benefit. These include learning together, Jigsaw method and group intervention.
Works Cited
Hallinan, Maureen. “Tracking: From Theory to Practice”. Sociology of Education 67.2 (1994): 79–184. Print.
Kulik, James and Chen-Lin, C. “Meta-analytic Findings on Grouping Programs”. Gifted Children Quarterly36.2 (1992): 7–73. Print.
Karen Zittleman; Sadker, David Miller (2006).Teachers, Schools and Society: A Brief Introduction to Education with Bind-in Online Learning Center Card with free Student Reader CD-ROM. McGraw-Hill Humanities/Social
Jeannie, Oakes. Keeping track: how schools structure inequality. Yale: Yale University Press, 2005. Print
Tom Loveless, The tracking wars: state reform meets school policy. New York: Brookings Institution Press, 1999. Print
Jeannie, Oakes, Marisa Saunders. Beyond tracking: multiple pathways to college, career, and civic participation. Harvard: Harvard Education Press, 2008. Print
Welner, Kevin and Burris, Carol Corbett. Alternative Approaches to the Politics of Detracking. Theory Into Practice, Volume 45, Number 1, 2006. Print
Garrity, D. Detracking With Vigilance. School Administrator, Volume 64, Number 8, pp. 10-14, 2007. Print