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A study into differential reactions to men and women gender role transgressions
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A study into differential reactions to men and women’s gender role transgressions
Introduction
In many societies when an individual violates social norms such as transgressing gender roles, they are likely to be punished. The male gender transgressor is considered to be of a lower social status as compared to the female gender transgressor. It has been established that the norms relation to gender roles are among the most powerful social norms which individuals can violate, and these are internalized when people practice socialization through gender roles. Usually, the social norms are what determine the various roles and habits that individual of either sex adopt and then enact; if anyone fails to act according to the gender roles, which they are perceived to, they will be considered to be acting negatively. This paper critically evaluates if the male gender transgressor will be punished more than the female transgressor.
Purpose of the study
This study was seeking to explain if an adult male individual, who is described to bear female traits will be considered to have a lower social status, has higher chances of being homosexual, and have values that are dissimilar to a female individual who is said to have traits that are considered masculine. It was also meant to explain if the male individual who has been observed to have feminine characteristics will be considered to have a lower social class, has a higher probability of being homosexual, and be of less value than a female individual who is described to have more masculine behavior. This simply means that a female with male traits will be considered homosexual just like the male counterpart with female traits is, but to a much less extent.
Hypothesis testing
The main hypothesis tested here is if an adult male individual to be used in the study and whose traits will be feminine will be considered to have lower social status, be more likely to be homosexual, and be considered to have a value higher or lower than that of a female individual who has masculine traits. The study will also test the hypothesis that the male who is described to have feminine traits will be considered to be of lower social status, have more chances of being homosexual, and be having more or less value to a female individual who has behavior considered masculine.
Structure of the study
The independent variables are gender and traits; dependant variables are homosexuality and social status. Qualitative research method is used because the parameters involved cannot be measured. This study included 59 students as participants from a North American college. The students involved were taking a developmental psychology course and included 29 men and 30 women. Most of them are white and participated by completing research material in small groups.
Personal perception paradigm is employed in this study. Each of the participants was to rate two hypothetical target persons (TPs). Of the TPs one is described through personalities described by gender and is labeled (TP1), while the other was described through behaviors attached to the sex of an individual, and this individual was labeled (TP2). TP1 are masculine typed and are obtained from the agency and the female typed subscales of the PAQ. PAQ were chosen because they are qualities for either sex but are considered more masculine or more feminine.
TP1 had completely masculine descriptions while TP2 had purely masculine traits descriptions on it. The descriptions on the behavior labeled in TP2 were a combination of various dominant and submissive traits that are borrowed from earlier on research that was carried out on gender based nature of these traits. Just like in the PAQ, the behavior is either submissive or dominant for both males and females, just as shown in the corresponding scores on social desirability scores; however, they are closely associated with dominant behaviors common in men or to submissive behaviors which are attached to women.
The masculine typed TP, which was dominant, is typed with men traits including contributing positively to group discussions, settling disputes successfully, encouraging other people to express their feelings and air their opinions, being strong willed, refusing to take in other people’s ideas, embarrassing other people publicly, arguing with security guards in an attempt to get through, making sexual advances to the spouse, not refusing when needed. The other one is typed with female traits including avoiding conversations unless invited, avoiding conversations at parties, protecting self form verbal abuse, avoiding statements and things that anger others, taking opinions from parents and friends, going out with others, and letting the partner choose where to hang out.
The study has been based on the argument that men who are described in gender-based ways are said to be higher in social status than women who are gender-typed, and that individuals of either sex who are gender typed are likely to be heterosexual. This implies that the major aim of this study is to compare the perceptions that people have on individuals who transgress gender and not to make comparisons of the perceptions on gender transgressors.
The participants are male and females who are assigned to make a reading on the way that two either male or female participants were described. The descriptions based on traits are always presented first. A provisional adjustment is to balance the number of either sex to 15. The participants are then asked read the underlying scenario and make a response to questions, which were inquiring about the type of person they though the person described could.
Statistical methods used in the analysis
The Perceived Social Status (PSS) test in TP1 and TP2 social status is measured using socio-metric variables that had been applied in earlier studies. The participants are to rate four items, which measured the importance, competence, and general regard of the individuals who participated.
The Perceived Homosexuality (PH), which was measured using three, items which have been successfully used earlier on in related studies. The participants rate how they think each of the traits on the TP is relevant to homosexuality, the extent each TP was close to homosexuality and the probability that the TP was homosexual. The first two were rated on a Likert scale with ten points where the magnitude increased as one moved towards ten. The third one is rated on a percentage scale and then transformed into Z scores (Sirin, 2010).
Perceived value Dissimilarity (PVD) that is measured using the short version of Schwartz’s values Survey.
Haddock et al. (19930 outlined eleven value types to be used in this 22nd measure and they include benevolence, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, conformity, achievement tradition, hedonism, spirituality, power and security.
Statistical analysis
The Perceived Social Status indicated that there is considerable effect or whether the participant was male or female. More males than females perceived TP1 negatively regardless whom it targeted. The male gender transgressor is attributed a lower social status than the female counterpart. He is also perceived more negatively. When the individual targeted is described it terms of behavior, there is a significant effect for just the sex of the individual transgressing the role of gender. A man with submissive behaviors is judged more negatively than a woman with dominant behaviors.
Perceived Sexual Orientation indicated no significant effect for the participant’s sex in the trait based TP. However, there is some effect on the transgressors sex. Females with male traits are less considered homosexual than men with female traits.
Perceived Value Dissimilarity produced figures which are analyzed to show and that, for TP1, there is no significant effect on the transgressor or the participants’’ life. For PT2 there is no significant effect for the participant’s sex. However, there is a considerable effect for the transgressors (Sirin, 2004).
Limitations and strengths
The participants are selected randomly from a group of 59 college students undertaking psychology in a North American Institution. In the course, there are 29 men and 30 women and a large percentage are white. The students participated by filling in the material in small groups.
They make use of various measures of the required qualitative data to quantify the aspects in question. These include the perceived social status, the perceived homosexuality and the perceived dissimilarity. After obtaining the data, it is then analyzed using the right tolls such as the ANOVAs, Fishers analysis and the Z score. This helps them to make conclusions.
Various measures are taken into consideration to reduce the errors and level of inaccuracy in the figures obtained since the wrong figure should result in poor results and incorrect conclusion. The methods used had been used in earlier studies and thus were chosen based on the merit of reliability and accuracy.
The research is instigated by the fact that men are usually punished highly by the society or deviating their gender role than the women committing the same offence. The study has clearly explained if that the two have a significant effect for committing the offence using a sample of 30 individuals, 15 men, and women.
These results may not be very significant to the entire population because the sample used is small as compared to the whole population.
Recommendations
I would increase the sample population and use individuals from various occupations rather than involving just one group of people. Each individual will be picked from another group of people.
The study has involved only students, which mean they have not included people of older age, yet they will face the same wrath if they go against the expected gender roles as well. I will include people of all age groups in order to validate the relevance of the study.
Conclusion
This research reveals that males with feminine traits are considered more of homosexual than women who have masculine traits thus the first hypothesis cannot be rejected. The study has also validated the conclusion that men with feminine behaviors are perceived to have lower social status as compared to females with male typed behaviors thus we cannot reject the hypothesis.
Reference
Sirin, S. R., McCreary, D.R., & Mahalik, J. (2004). Differential reactions to men and women’s gender role transgressions: Perceptions of social status, sexual orientation, and value dissimilarity. Journal of Men’s Studies, 12(2), 119-132.
Sirin, S. R. (2010). Meta analysis. In N. J. Salkind (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Research Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Borderline Personality Disorder 12 Common Symptoms and Causes
Borderline Personality Disorder: 12 Common Symptoms and Causes
By: Rachel Despres on Tuesday, February 13th, 2018
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a mental illness that affects about 1.6 percent of adults in the United States alone. According to the NHS, it is the most commonly recognized personality disorder, and affects a person’s thoughts and feelings about themselves and others.
Those who develop BPD tend to begin exhibiting signs by early adulthood. The condition generally worsens as they move into young adulthood, but can get better as they age. Read on to learn about the 12 most common symptoms and causes of BPD to be mindful of.
Symptoms
1. Fear of Abandonment
People with BPD tend to have a strong fear of being left alone or abandoned. Regardless of whether such abandonment is real or imagined, the individual may go to extreme measures to avoid possible separation or rejection.
For example, HelpGuides.com says someone with BPD may “beg, cling, start fights, jealousy track your loved one’s movements, or even physically block the other person from leaving.” Unfortunately, these behaviors may cause loved ones to withdraw, resulting in exactly what they feared and were trying to prevent.
2. Unstable Relationships
BPD tends to make maintaining healthy relationships very challenging. This is because the affected individual tends to be quite needy, intense, and mistrusting, not only with romantic partners, but also with friends and family.
Additionally, a person with BPD tends to have a very black and white way of thinking about people, seeing them as ‘all good’ or ‘all bad.’ This causes frequently shifting attitudes towards others that range from “extreme closeness and love (idealization) to extreme dislike or anger (devaluation),” says the National Institute of Mental Health.
3. Unstable Self-Image
People with BPD also struggle with identity disturbances. Sometimes, they may feel good about themselves, but others times they may feel hatred toward who they are, perhaps seeing themselves as bad or evil. Additionally, this self-image can change depending on whom the person is with, as they often copy the actions and behaviors of others because “their ability to be independent and autonomous is very impaired,” says John Oldham, MD, professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, in speaking with Health.com.
They may also have constantly shifting ideas of who they are or what they want in life, resulting in frequent changes to “jobs, friends, lovers, religion, values, goals, and even sexual identity,” indicates HelpGuides.com.
4. Impulsive, Risky Behaviors
Impulsive, risky, and often self-destructive behaviors are also common for those with BPD. These behaviors can include gambling, spending sprees, shoplifting, or “sabotaging success by suddenly quitting a good job or ending a positive relationship,” says the Mayo Clinic.
In some cases these behaviors may even put the individual in danger, such as by driving recklessly, practicing unsafe sex, abusing drugs or alcohol, or binge eating. While engaging in these activities may help them feel better in the moment, in the long run they can do more harm than good to themselves and their close relationships.
5. Self-Harm and Suicide
Self-injury is another common symptom of BPD; in fact, the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health says that “up to 75 percent of people with BPD self-injure one or more times,” commonly by cutting, burning themselves with a cigarette, or an “overdose that can bring relief from intense emotional pain.”
While in most cases these self-harming behaviors are non-suicidal, that isn’t the case for everyone, as the source says, “about 10 percent of people with BPD take their own lives.”
6. Intense Mood Swings
Another common symptom of BPD is emotional volatility, with intense mood swings that range from extreme happiness one moment, to despair the next. These mood swings can be triggered by things that others would simply brush off or not even notice, such as “if a colleague was too preoccupied to say hello in the hallway,” says Health.com.
While these mood swings tend to pass fairly quickly, typically lasting only a few minutes or hours, in some cases they may persist for several days at a time.
7. Chronic Feelings of Emptiness
People with BPD may also struggle with chronic feelings of emptiness, like “there’s a hole or a void inside them,” says HelpGuides.com. In extreme cases, the source says that individuals may feel as if they are ‘nothing’ or ‘nobody.’
Because this feeling of emptiness is uncomfortable, they “may try to fill the hole with things like drugs, food, or sex.” While these things may offer temporary relief, nothing seems to make it go away for good.
8. Explosive Anger
In addition to extreme mood swings, people with BPD may also struggle with intense anger. Although such anger is often triggered, Health.com says they “react in a way that seems exaggerated or disproportional to an event.”
These reactions can include “frequently losing your temper, being sarcastic or bitter, or having physical fights,” says the Mayo Clinic. Although this anger is most noticeable when it is directed outwardly toward others, HelpGuides.com notes that people with BPD spend a great deal of time being angry at themselves.
9. Paranoia and Dissociation
Paranoia is another common symptom of BPD, where an individual may have “suspicious thoughts about others’ motives,” says HelpGuides.com. As a result, they may struggle to trust others.
In some cases, often when under stress, people with BPD may also experience dissociation. In such a state, the National Institute of Mental Health says they may “feel cut off from oneself, seeing oneself from outside one’s body, or feelings of unreality.”
Work Cited Entry
Despres, Rachel. Borderline Personality Disorder: 12 Common Symptoms and Causes.” ActiveBeat, 12 Feb. 2018, www.activebeat.com. 11July 2018.
A study article by Jadranka Ivandic and Vlado Jukic, titled Familial risk factors favoring drug addiction onset
Research Methods
University Affiliation
Student’s Details
Research Methods
Research is an important exercise to support claims or evaluate phenomena. In order to create authoritative and well-founded statements about a phenomenon, there needs be a data collection exercise and analysis of the data to arrive at an informed conclusion based on the obtained results. The exercise of evaluating a phenomenon comprises the research, and the approaches are the research methods.
A study article by Jadranka Ivandić and Vlado Jukić, titled “Familial risk factors favoring drug addiction onset” was published in the 2012 Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 44, issue no.2. The research was conducted in the year 2008 through 2009. The authors sought to answer several questions, among them, to ascertain whether the onset of drug addiction was in any way related to certain risk factors in families. They also pursued to answer at what stage were the familial risk factors more significant in influencing drug addiction among addicts.
There are two major research methods applicable to a research undertaking; that is, qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. Quantitative research is whereby the researcher(s) have specific objectives they seek to evaluate. This research method tries to explain a certain phenomenon by use of mathematical approaches. In quantitative research method, numerical data about the studied phenomenon is collected, analysed by the use of statistics principles and meaningful conclusions derived from the results obtained. Therefore, quantitative research is often employed where the research questions necessitate numerical data collection and answers. Conversely, qualitative research method entail observational study of human experiences and behaviours in relation to their environment. This research method involves no numerical data collection, and largely involve use of open-ended questionnaires among other techniques. The article “Familial risk factors favoring drug addiction onset” (Jadranka & Jukić, 2008) employs the use of qualitative research method.
Judging from the data collection methods and the nature of the collected data, qualitative research method was employed in this study. Other than the admission by the authors of “Familial risk factors favoring drug addiction onset” to employment of qualitative research method, it is further evidenced by their use of open-ended questionnaires for data collection. Additionally, the responses to the questionnaires were designated as either positive, neutral or negative, as opposed to using numerals (Jadranka & Jukić, 2008). Moreover, the responses to the questionnaires involved an account of the respondents’ early family life experiences (Jadranka & Jukić, 2008).
In developmental psychology, the human changes over the life span are studied. Thus, in the “Familial risk factors favoring drug addiction onset” (Jadranka & Jukić, 2008), they authors conducted a developmental psychology research. This because they sought to study the effects that different environments of upbringing have on drug abuse.
Ethical issues are prevalent with any research. It is the researchers’ obligation to ensure that their study methodologies ascribe to a high degree of ethical conduct. In the article “Familial risk factors favoring drug addiction onset” (Jadranka & Jukić, 2008), the researchers contend with several ethical issues. Firstly, the authors gained informed consent from the respondents of the study. They enlightened on the objectives of the study and the purposes to which the results would be put. Secondly, the authors observed the free consent of the respondents. The respondents who opted out of the study or disregarded exposing some personal information were not coerced (Jadranka & Jukić, 2008). Thirdly, the study safeguarded the respondents from harm. The addicts under acute therapy were exempted from the exercise (Jadranka & Jukić, 2008). Their inclusion would have a bearing on their emotions, would have probably hampered their treatment.
A research exercise is more than just answering some question. Critical thought on the research methodology is needed. The methodology should be convenient to meet the research exercise demands adequately. The researcher(s) should also put into consideration ethical issues involved with the research.
References
Ivandić Zimić, J., & Jukić, V. (2012). Familial risk factors favouring drug addiction onset. Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, 44(2), 173-185.