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Main Lines Of Debate Between Teleological Arguments And Theory Of Evolution
Main Lines Of Debate Between Teleological Arguments And Theory Of Evolution
Debate has been rife for several centuries regarding logical explanation for the existence of the universe, particularly with regard to existence of life. Teleological arguments and evolution theory have widely been studied to offer some of the most acceptable reasoning perspectives for the debate. Explanation has been sought to validate the position held by proponents of the debate, which fall on the opposing side. The main lines of debate can be discussed as follows.
Teleology Lines
First, temporal orderliness of the universe acts as one of the main support points of the teleological proponents of the debate (Swinburne, 154). According to the author, the universe happens to follow some form of order which cannot be assumed to occur just by chance. Guided by positions held by great theologians such as Thomas of Aquinas, the author is of the opinion that such happenings can only be explained by existence of “someone with awareness…we call God,” (Swinburne, 155). It is clear that the apparent orderliness that exists in the universe must be under the control of some being, a comparison of which mush be a deity. This position finds easy acceptance into the debate, perhaps better than any other.
Another argument is the probability of existence of the high orderliness in both universes, Godly and Godless which shows that there is a high probability that the laws of nature that the universe follows must be set out by some being (160). The author states that objects in nature follow some predictable behavior only in a Godly universe as Humean theory explains. We can draw an inference from this theory that the universe is under directions from a deity.
In addition, spatial order, a fact of the universe can be argued only in a perspective that recognizes regularity therein. Co-presence as well as succession can not be explained in exclusion of God (167). These regularity perspectives that denote a well ordered universe complement a Godly universe argument with all respect. Alternatively, beauty of the universe that complements its orderliness is more reasonable when an explanation is sought from Godly presence (190). Using the spectacular regularity depicted by the universe, it is logical to attach a deity to the best explanation sought on its beauty.
Consciousness and mentality analysis gives an array of arguments that strongly support the position that were it not for the existence of God in the Universe, certain innate features of the universe would not exist (198). It is certainly possible to lose meaning of morality in human beings without telos, which explains the position held by God in the universe (Fahlbusch, 328).
Evolution Lines
Linnaean Taxonomy appears to solve the problem of the structure of life forms into a family tree. It is easily possible to trace the origin of life forms due to the universe’s incredible consistency in organizing life into the family tree. It is possible to practically demonstrate the origin of life forms from a common ancestor using the family tree (Wong, 1)
A spinal cord injury (SCI) is very serious because it can mean the loss of sensation and function in the parts of the body be
SCI
A spinal cord injury (SCI) is very serious because it can mean the loss of sensation and function in the parts of the body below the site of the injury. SCI’s are caused in many different ways. Some of the most common ways a person may obtain a SCI are- motor vehicle accidents, bullet or stab wound, diving accidents, electric shock, awkward positioning of the body, falls, sports injuries (such as football or diving), industrial accidents, assault and gunshot wounds. Polio, Spina Bifida and Friedreich’s Ataxia are some of the frequent diseases that cause SCI. SCI may also be know in other names such as spinal cord compression (SCC) and spinal cord trauma (SCT).
According to an article in , SCI’s occur in approximately 12,000 to 15,000 people per year in the U.S. About 10,000 of these people are permanently paralyzed, and many of the rest die as a result of their injuries. Most spinal cord trauma occurs to young, healthy individuals. Males between the ages of 15 and 35 are most commonly affected.
The spinal cord is about 18 inches long and extends from the base of the brain, down the middle of the back, to about the waist. It is composed of 33 bones called vertebrae, 31 pairs of nerves, 40 muscles and numerous connecting tendons and ligaments running from the base of the skull to the tailbone. Between the vertebrae are fibrous, elastic cartilage called discs. These absorb shock and keep your spine flexible and cushion the hard vertebrae as it moves. The nerves that lie within the spinal cord are upper motor neurons (UMN’s) and their function is to carry the messages back and forth from the brain to the spinal nerves along the spinal tract. The spinal nerves that branch out from the spinal cord to the other parts of the body are called lower motor neurons (LMN’s). These spinal nerves exit and enter at each vertebral level and communicate with specific areas of the body. The sensory portions of the LMN carry messages about sensation from the skin and other body parts and organs to the brain. The motor portions of the LMN send messages from the brain to the various body parts to begin actions such as muscle movement. The brain and the spinal cord both make up the Central Nervous System. Motor and sensory nerves outside the central nervous system make up the Peripheral Nervous System and another diffuse system of nerves that control involuntary functions such as blood pressure and temperature regulation are the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous Systems. Rings of bone called vertebra surround the spinal cord, and these bones make up the spinal column or backbones. Most often, the higher in the spinal column the injury occurs, the more dysfunction a person will experience. The vertebras are named according to their location. The 8 vertebra in the neck are called the Cervical Vertebra. The top vertebra is called C-1; the next is C-2, and etc. Cervical SCI’s usually cause loss of function in the arms and legs, resulting in quadriplegia. The 12 vertebra in the chest are called the Thoracic Vertebra. The first is called the T-1 and it’s where the top rib attaches. Injuries to this region usually affect the chest and the legs and result in paraplegia. The vertebra in the lower back between the thoracic and the pelvis, are called the Lumbar Vertebra. The sacral vertebras run from the pelvis to the end of the spinal column. Injuries to the 5 Lumbar vertebra and similarly to the 5 sacral vertebra generally result in some loss of functioning in the hips and legs. The effects of SCI depend on the type of injury and the level of the injury. SCI can be divided into two types of injury- complete and incomplete. A complete injury means that there is no function below the level of the injury, no sensation and no voluntary movement. Both sides of the body are equally affected. An incomplete injury means that there is some functioning below the primary level of injury. A person with an incomplete injury may be able to move one limb more than another, may be able to feel parts of the body that cannot be moved, or may have more functioning on one side of the body than the other. With the advances in treatment of SCI, incomplete injuries are becoming more common. The level of injury is very helpful in predicting what parts of the body paralysis and loss of function might affect. Injuries above the C-4 level may require a ventilator for the person to breathe. C-5 injuries often result in shoulder and biceps control, but no control at the wrist or hand. C-6 injuries generally affect wrist control, but no hand function. Individuals with C-7 and T-1 injuries can straighten their arms but still may have problems with the hand and fingers. At T-1 to T-8 there is most often control of the hands, but poor trunk control as the result of lack of abdominal muscle control. T-9 to T-12 injuries allows good trunk and good abdominal muscle control. Individuals with SCI also experience other changes. They may have dysfunction of the bowel and bladder. Sexual functioning is frequently with SCI. Men have their fertility affected, while women’s fertility is not affected. Other affects of SCI include low blood pressure, inability to regulate blood pressure effectively, reduced control of body temperature, inability to sweat below the level of injury and chronic pain. SCI may also bring other possible complications like Skin Breakdown (also termed as “decubitus ulcers” or “pressure sores”), which occurs as a result of excessive pressure over the bones of the buttock. Osteoporosis and Fractures occurs when muscle activity is decreased or eliminated and the legs no longer bear the body’s weight and begin to lose calcium and phosphorus which makes them become weak and brittle. Usually occurring 2 years after the initial SCI. Pneumonia, Atelectasis and Aspiration are the injuries above the T-4 level of injury that are at risk of developing restriction in respiratory functions 5-10 years after the SCI. Heterotopic Ossification happens within 12-18 months, occurs when the joints stiffen and fusion. Safety practices during work and recreation can prevent many SCI’s. Use proper protective equipment if an injury is possible, and practice appropriate safety measures. Always check the depth of water before diving, and look for rocks or other possible obstructions. Football and sledding injuries often involve sharp blows or abnormal twisting and bending of the back or neck and can result in SCT. Use caution when sledding and inspect the area for obstacles. Use appropriate techniques and equipment when playing football or other contact sports. Falls while climbing at work or during recreational activities may cause serious SCI’s. Always use defensive driving practices and improved vehicular design may prevent many automobile accidents, and the use of seat belts will greatly reduce the risk of serious injury if there is an automobile accident. Using and remembering these tips will always reduce your chances of ever encountering a situation where you could be the victim of a spinal cord injury.
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Book Review Tried by War
Book Review: Tried by War
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Book Review: Tried by War
James M. McPherson’s “Tried by War” is a book that outlines the life of Abraham Lincoln as it unfolded when he was the commander in Chief of the army despite lacking prior military experience. The book is written clearly as evidenced by feelings of battle while reading. The book addresses various themes while answering some questions as he delved into the life of Abraham Lincoln on military perspective. Lincoln encountered countless battles during the Civil war and with most notable George McClellan. He had to learn to be the commander in chief while on the job and with little support from those in command. Lincoln led the United States to victory through mobilization of the public opinion in addition to his diplomatic and leadership policies.
McPherson notes that the issue of secession threatened to destroy the fabric upon which the nation was built if conscious steps had not been taken by the president of the time – Abraham Lincoln. The war was different in that it was not a war between states or people with different vested interests but a war that had its foundation on treason and rebellion. The United States Constitution outlines that the constitution was for uniting the people as opposes to the belief that people had that it was for the states. It was the responsibility of the people to follow what was outlined in the constitution to the latter. Upholding and making it supreme was to be their undisputed role as citizens and individuals in general. Despite the states of Confederacy being temporarily under the control of rebel governments, they still formed part of the Union and were to adhere to its objectives and constitutional responsibility.
Since Lincoln was responsible for shaping and defining national policy, contrary events were aimed at dividing the nation of which Lincoln would not allow. The United States was a democratic state where the majority had their say.
McPherson notes that politics was the objective of going to war. The war was therefore not something that came up autonomously but as an instrument through which the objectives and purposes of some individuals would be passed across. The aim of the author in addressing the issue of secession and the ensuing conflicts is to reinforce the idea that the identity of a nation as one is more important and it can only be achieved by going to war. War was a means to an end. He also shows the character trait of Lincoln as a man who would not entertain any thoughts for dissolution or dismemberment. He was a man who was astute in his decisions through a thorough study of war and military strategy. “Tried by war” is a great book that analyses how Abraham Lincoln successfully stopped the secession program by halting all the attempts by the eleven Southern States. The author notes that Lincoln could not ignore the political context that his decisions that his military strategies had on the military strategy. The two were interconnected by a cord that only Lincoln was aware of.
Another major theme as addressed by McPherson is the military and national strategy. Military strategy is the plans that are developed by the military to win a war. National Strategy, on the other hand, is the activities which are aimed at mobilizing all the resources to achieve the aims of the war. The resources in this perspective are the political, economic, diplomatic and psychological resources. Just like the ordinary soldiers who volunteered in the army lacked knowledge of military affairs, Lincoln was similar like them. As McPherson writes, “Lincoln faced a steep learning curve.” The skill and acumen of Lincoln were strengths that allowed him to maneuver and manipulate the law to formulate strategies for the good of the nation as he thought. Democracy was threatened by a few elements that were not pleased with how the running of affairs was being done. Lincoln ensured that mass mobilization of people took place for them to join the Union Army which had a deficit. Eventually, the army grew to over half a million men.
Due to cross-border emancipation programs and the issue of the Southern antislavery majority, Lincoln decided to change the national strategy to his advantage. He decided to activate the Northern Antislavery majority by proclaiming the freedom of slaves in some states which were considered rebellious. As noted by McPherson, decisive and extreme measures had to be undertaken to tackle the problem as fast as possible. Freeing the slaves was one way of ensuring they were not subdued by their adversaries. Lincoln believed that the sight of drilled black soldiers would end the rebellion at once when they went to war at the banks of Mississippi. To add on that the author notes that Lincoln was not left behind when efforts to shape the military strategy took precedence. His lack of experience in the war forced him to explore the suggestions of the General in Chief. He was however disappointed by the General due to his poor decision-making skills. Lincoln was forced to read widely on military strategy in addition to various discussions. He planned on how he would plan an attack on the enemy by attacking from all sides. The plan was architected perfectly due to the reaction of Johnston who feared it. His plan was objectively orchestrated to force the enemy further away in order r to lengthen the line of Union Supply. Noticing errors in military planning by his subjects, Lincoln advised them that the best way to win the war was by fighting the enemy rather than maneuvering and sieging which were significantly fruitless. The author convincingly points out the issue of military strategy by noting the significant role that Lincoln played. On a broader picture, he was tried by the war.
Another major theme that the author addresses is the theme of national policy formulation. The role of shaping the national policy was vested on Lincoln gave his position as the commander in chief and the leader of the party. Therefore, McPherson notes that the war was an instrument of furthering the national policy to serve the purpose. In some of the appointments for the position of generals, politics played a big part where the appointments were politically instigated. However, most of these generals made more blunders than their counterparts who had prior military experience. They had mediocre military records. The book convincingly depicts how Lincoln matched his nation to victory by formulating national policies in addition to mobilizing public opinion for the betterment of nature. His policies in the army were generally about volunteering and persistence. McPherson notes that the aim of policies passed by Lincoln was to preserve the support of the general public despite receiving backlash and underperformance from the military. McPherson convincingly dedicated the first half of the book to document the first two years of the war. In this way, the leadership style of Lincoln comes out clearly as a man dedicated to action. As a self-taught strategist, Abraham Lincoln ensured victory was in sight by ensuring the policies always favored the victory side despite lacking in military experience.
In conclusion, the book has a lot of relevance today. The book documented the life of one of the most important figures in the history of the United States. The book provided an excellent examination of Lincoln’s Life and the many challenges he faced as a wartime president. The book lacked one most important element in documenting the life of Lincoln. The book would be more relevant if the author touched on the biography of Lincoln to pre-president years. It does not provide the explicit cradle to grave life encounter of Abraham Lincoln. The book is relevant today in issues that are prevalent in the book. For instance, it provides insights on the best actions to take as a leader during times of war. The book makes a connection to the present and future by addressing themes that are common in a country. The link however vague, succeeds in providing a glimpse of approaching some things in the society. For instance, the mobilization of public opinion and national strategy can be used by leaders to develop strategies towards revival and development in general. The nature of how circumstances shape a leader to act unilaterally is also a glimpse of decisions to take by a leader in case war breaks unprecedented.
References
McPherson, J. M. (2008). Tried by war: Abraham Lincoln as commander in chief. Penguin.