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Discuss how the concept of workplace learning can help improve your organisations performance
Introduction
The term workplace learning generally refers to the process of acquiring, integrating, distributing and creating information and knowledge among members of an organization. This process comprises of various components which support knowledge productivity process and involves searching of information, assimilation, development and creation of new knowledge on processes, products and services, (Wang & Ellinger, 2011, p. 512). The essence of workplace learning in generating organizational knowledge helps in sustenance of competitive advantage and leads to creation of new markets and niches. Globally, the diverse workforce environment and the use of information technology have made organizations to increasingly become aware of the competitive environment in which they are thriving in and hence, pursue the competitive advantage that lies in learning and knowledge. Organizational knowledge is an asset which can be managed to contribute to a firm’s innovation performance. According to As Wang & Ellinger (2011, p. 512), workplace training is a key process which contributes to successful innovation in an organization and hence, it determines and supports and organization’s performance. In view of this, this paper gives a detailed account of how the concept of ‘workplace learning’ can help in improving an organization’s performance, drawing examples from Mad About Plants Company. To understand this better, it will be worthy to give a brief account of concept of workplace learning and its relationship with innovation performance.
The Concept of Workplace Learning
Panagiotakopoulos (2011, p. 351) notes that there are a variety of definitions to the ‘concept of workplace leaning’, which are not always consistent with each other. In this context, the focus is on the acquisition of knowledge or skills by formal or informal means that occurs at workplace. This includes both informal workplace learning and formal on-the-job training. As Panagiotakopoulos points out, workplace learning is a practical approach to developing relevant knowledge and skills for the benefits of individuals and organization. It has a merit of being a corroborative model in which employers and employees can jointly address skills development through the process of social dialogue.
Ideally, as Panagiotakopoulos notes, workplace learning links industry, employer and individual learning in ways which encourage and support lifelong learning. In it’s fully development form, workplace learning implies carrying out training needs analysis and development of individual development plans from the training needs analysis. Then, the employee development can meaningfully be aligned with organizational development. This explains the reason for adopting Wang and Ellinger’s definition for the concept of workplace learning in this context. Wang and Ellinger’s note that the concept of workplace learning refers to the process of acquiring, integrating, distributing and creating information and knowledge among members of an organization. This implies that, workplace learning is ideally not the correction of short-term job-performance problems. Instead, as Malloch (2010, p. 348) asserts the real benefits of workplace learning come aligning workers’ skills development with organizational goals and helps to achieve a sustainable learning organization and a continuous improvement culture. According to Malloch (2010, p. 348), this leads to significant improvement an organization’s performance.
Workplace learning and innovation performance
According to Kuo (2011, p. 581), effective workplace learning requires efficient Strategic human resource management (HRM) practices. This involves optimizing learning, development and performance improvement at individual, group and organizational levels. As Kuo, explains, this enables an organization to keep pace with changing environment. Generally, for organization’s performance to improve, it requires competent people to learn and interpret new information and technology changes from external environment so as to create new knowledge faster than the competitors. In other words, workplace learning has to be coherent with organization’s design, strategy, strategic HRM practices, structures and context. According to Kuo, the most efficient way to improving organizational performance is through innovation.
The term innovation has been broadly defined as “an idea, a product, or process, system or device that is perceived to be new to an individual, a group of people or firms, an individual sector or a society as a whole” (Kuo, 2011, p. 582). Innovation has also been understood as a method which leads to sustenance of competitive advantage through exploration of new products or services or through exploitation of the existing ones. Thus, innovation if generally focused on learning, acquisition of new knowledge and recognition. According to Kuo an organizations innovations performance is rooted in human capital and cannot be replicated or transferred. Better put, an organization that has the most advanced technology but which is lacking talented employees still cannot perform or conduct innovative projects. Thus, the concept of workplace learning maintains that for organizations to be successful, they should have systems which support learning and improvement in performance at all levels. With individual focus towards innovative information new opportunities, it becomes easier for an organization to initiate and achieve entrepreneurial opportunities. Though individuals’ sum of innovative behaviour might not be equal to organizational-level innovation performance, organizational-level performance is usually based on its members’ innovative behaviours (Kuo, 2011, p. 582). This means that organizational performance takes place under conditions that organizational members’ innovation can be transferred to organizational level.
How workplace learning can help to improve organizational performance
There are various human resource issues related to workplace learning, which help in improving organizational performance. First, workplace learning helps to improve the quality of skills of the workforce, (Eraut, 2010, p. 8). This further leads to improvement in service delivery performance. According to Eraut, learning leads to increased sense of professionalism of the workforce and greater likelihood of employee’s career progression. This increases efficiency in service delivery which leads to more effective use of resources. On top of this, learning enhances workplace relationships which lead to improved team corporation, co-ordination and performance. This can well be illustrated by the performance of the Mad About Plants Company, based in Australia (The Conference Board of Canada, 2009). Mad About Plants is a 15 person horticultural company which supplies a variety of materials and plants such as palms, trees, indoor plants, shrubs and ground cover to local councils,, landscapers retail nurseries and large department stores . When the company started in 1998, a lack of skills made it impossible for the company to grow quality plants and to run profitable business. The two leaders of the company, Darryl and Katherine Madder, recognized the critical shortfall in skills and took the responsibility to introduce the relevant training.
As a result, this company has performed tremendously in improvement of sales, increasing customer satisfaction and in lowering of operational costs. In fact, According to The Conference Board of Canada (2009), Mad About Plants was crowned the Prime Minister’s Small Business of the Year at the Australian Training Awards in 2004. A study conducted by the Conference Board of Canada in 2009 found that, since training of workers of Mad About Plants had been put in place, incident reporting had increased, providing greater safety for both employees and clients. Further, there was considerable improvement in the quality assurance system in the company as well as increased focus on root causes in incident investigations due to greater amount of data available. On top of that, training contributed significantly to employees’ self-esteem resulting in them being treated with greater respect and contributing to an improved since of morale amongst the workers and the clients, (The Conference Board of Canada, 2009)
Generally, employees gain a more in-depth understanding of their role as well as a greater level of awareness of client needs and what they should or should not do in relation to these needs. For example, in Mad About Plants, managers reported that employees who had participated in training were more likely to identify issues that may need attending to such as deterioration in client’s ability to maintain independence and environmental conditions that may threaten the client or the worker. In addition, it was reported that service delivery of employees who had undergone training was higher and they had a greater sense of professionalism, which raised their expectations of their own behaviour, (The Conference Board of Canada, 2009).
Ryan (2009, p. 34) further asserts that workplace training leads to better matching of employee’s skills to client needs. This is due to the fact that employees gain a wider range of skills which enhances their ability to work with clients with more challenging or complex service needs. Further, learning results in a better understanding of the rights of clients as consumers and thus, gives a higher level of protection for them. Also, training helps to reduce the gap between expectations of the workers and the reality of the job. This leads the workers to have a better appreciation of their duties and better preparedness to perform the required tasks. At Mad About Plants Company, a willingness to participate in training is now a basic requirements for new employees leading to perception of the job as one career progression is possible, (The Conference Board of Canada, 2009). Cavaleri (2004, p. 159) adds that, workplace training helps to improve indirect service delivery of an organization. For instance, workplace training leads to improved community sustainability, as it gives individuals opportunity to work and achieve qualification in communities which do not have formal training establishments.
Another benefit of workplace learning is that, it helps to increase the quantity of skilled workers in an organization, ( HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?hl=en&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22William+J.+Rothwell%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=9” Rothwell et al, 1999, p. 215). According to The Conference Board of Canada (2009), the need for a positive working environment for the workers was the driving force for Mad About Plants’ interest and investment in workplace training. During establishment of the company, communications and problem-solving among employees was limited and absenteeism was a concern in this company. As a result, there was general lack of self-esteem throughout the organization, which impacted negatively of productivity and performance of the organization. To address this problem, Mad About Plants came up with training programs to improve employee numeracy, language, literacy, information technology and communication skills. Majority of the employees of this company received these private tutoring, which was customized to meet their specific needs in relation to service delivery to the company.
The benefits of the training have been significant for both Mad About Plants Company and its employees. Currently, the organization has a much greater capacity to achieve its business objectives of safety, improved compliance outcomes, improvement in quality and productivity gains. Significantly, there is a drop in absenteeism and workplace accidents (The Conference Board of Canada, 2009). Further, there is greater understanding and more positive attitudes towards the current working environment of the company. Most remarkable, there has been a considerable improvement in staff retention in the company. Generally, the training helped Mad About Plants to solve various associated problems such shortage of skilled workers, staff turnover and issues related to ageing of workforce. Burrow & Berardinelli, (2003, p. 7), adds that workplace learning also increases the capacity to attract higher capacity applicants for advertised positions.
According to Burrow & Berardinelli, (2003, p. 7), workplace learning helps to improve management and leadership skills. Specifically, it helps to leadership competencies and delegation of duties at management level. At Mad About Plants Company the introduced training mainly focussed on management of people, addressing recruitment and staff retention issues and increasing productivity (The Conference Board of Canada, 2009). Specifically the company focused on building its leadership and management capacity, improving the extent to which people corroborated, communicate and networked with one another, increasing focus and commitment on investments on people and skills and creating a workplace culture that recognized and valued good work. Training for the staff of Mad About Plants Company was provided for a couple of hours per week. Training involved informal learning and skill development activities such as having the management and staff review all projects that exceeded budget so as to learn from them and hence identify areas where future improvements can be made. Within one and half years, Mad about Plants had doubled the size of its workforce, doubled its staff retention rate and most significantly, doubled its profits. Further, this company enhanced its reputation for delivering cost effective, effective and high quality work. Also, the company reduced the extent of material wastage and improved the quality of workmanship (The Conference Board of Canada, 2009).
Another point is that workplace learning improves efficiency in an organization’s operational performance. In particular, it helps to improve competitiveness and building capacity for growth, improve culture and attitudes, manage global competition, address shifting market preferences, control costs and use new technology and machinery and adapt to new legislation. At Mad about Plants Company, training is used to improve skills of the staff so as to achieve high level of efficiencies and to have safer working environments. The Conference Board of Canada (2009) learnt that the training helps the staff of this company to understand and apply fatigue management strategies, apply basic first aid, coordinate breakdown and emergencies, shift the products safely using manual handling methods and work effectively with others. The managers ensure that the quality of training delivered meets the needs of the company and that proper delivery and assessment mechanisms are used. As a result of the training, employees are able to put the new skills into practice very quickly as the learning is designed around the daily activities of the workers. By 2004, Mad about Plants Company had recorded a 25% decrease in damaged freight due to better loading practices used by the employees. This was due to the fact that employees had become more aware of their responsibility to follow safe working practices. Accidents in the company have reduced by approximately 30%. Also, the number of customer complaint has reduced significantly.
Workplace Learning also enhances a team-based culture in an organization, (Bratton et al, 2003, p. 35). This brings a range of benefits to an organization, including the flexibility to be able to maintain quality service delivery even in the face of unplanned absences. Also, it leads to better and faster response to clients when service needs change. On top of that, team working incorporating high level of trust within team and between team and management reduces the feelings of isolation and increases the sense of solidarity within the organization. It also results in a change in service coordination role away from focus on fire fighting and roistering to increased emphasis on quality assurance against individual service plans.
As Ryan (2009, p. 34) notes, workplace learning enhances the sense of self esteem and leads to greater job satisfaction among the staff. Also, employees gain confidence in recognizing the skills that they already have. Ryan (2009, p. 34) notes that workplace learning is associated with efficiency gains and promotes better use of limited resources. Workers with improved skills are able to perform some tasks that they could not afford before, particularly around service coordination and mentoring of junior staff. All these benefits resulting from workplace training contributes to organizational performance through enhanced service delivery. Generally, they enhance the ability of an organization to compete successfully in competitive tendering processes and delivery of services in line with contractual obligations, (Biech, 2008, p. 117). However, Cavaleri (2004, p. 159) argues that, offering greater job responsibilities is vital in protecting organizational training investment by reducing the likelihood that employees may look for other job opportunities to utilize their new skills.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the concept of workplace learning generally refers to the process of acquiring, integrating, distributing and creating information and knowledge among members of an organization. As noted, the essence of workplace learning in an organizational helps in generating knowledge which in turn, helps in sustenance of competitive advantage and leads to creation of new markets and niches. Further, workplace learning is crucial in supporting innovation among the staff, which enhances better performance of an organization in general. As demonstrated using Mad about Plants Company, the essence of workplace learning in an organization helps to improve the quality of skills of the workforce. Also, it helps to increase the quantity of skilled workers in an organization. Third, workplace learning helps to improve management and leadership skills. Further, it helps to improve efficiency in an organization’s operational performance. Finally, it enhances the sense of self esteem and leads to greater job satisfaction among the staff. Generally, all these benefits resulting contributes to organizational performance through enhanced service delivery.
References
Biech, E, (2008), measuring and evaluating impact, ASTD Handbook for Workplace Learning
Professionals, Washington DC: American Society for Training and Development
Bratton, J., Mills, J. C. H, Pyrch, T. & Sawchuk, P., (2003), groups, work teams and learning,
Workplace Learning: A Critical Introduction, University of Toronto Press
Burrow, J., & Berardinelli, P. (2003) Systematic performance improvement – refining the space
between learning and results, Journal of Workplace Learning, 15 (1), pp.6 – 13
Cavaleri, S. A., (2004), Leveraging organizational learning for knowledge and performance, The
Learning Organization, 11 (2), pp. 159-176
Eraut, M., (2011), Informal learning in the workplace: evidence on the real value of work-based
learning (WBL), Development and learning in organizations 25 ( 5) 2011, pp. 8-12,
Kuo, T., (2011) How to improve organizational performance through learning and knowledge?,
International Journal of Manpower 32 (5/6), pp. 581-603
Malloch, M., (2010), workplace learning through an emotional lens, The SAGE Handbook of
Workplace Learning, London: SAGE Publications Ltd
Panagiotakopoulos, A., (2011) Workplace learning and its organizational benefits for small
enterprises: Evidence from Greek industrial firms, Learning Organization,18 (5), pp.350 – 360
HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?hl=en&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22William+J.+Rothwell%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=9” Rothwell, W. J., Sanders, E. S. & HYPERLINK “http://www.google.co.ke/search?hl=en&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Jeffrey+G.+Soper%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=9” Soper, J G., (1999), the evolution of the ASTD models for
workplace learning and performance, ASTD models for workplace learning and performance: roles, competencies, and outputs, Washington DC: American Society for Training and Development
Ryan, R.,(2009, p. 34), “Improving Workforce Development and Organisational Performance”,
retrieved from, HYPERLINK “http://www.angoa.org.nz/angoa_docs/Liz-Stephenson-Careerforce-Report.pdf” http://www.angoa.org.nz/angoa_docs/Liz-Stephenson-Careerforce-Report.pdf
The Conference Board of Canada (2009), “Workplace Learning in Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises: Effective Practice for Improving Productivity and Competitiveness” retrieved from, http://www.ccl-cca.ca/pdfs/OtherReports/CBofC-WorkplaceLearning-SME-OverviewReport.pdf
Wang, Y & Ellinger, A. D., (2011), Organizational learning Perception of external environment
and innovation performance, International Journal of Manpower, 32 (5/6), pp. 512-536
Discuss how the APA Ethics Code fulfills its objectives
HW
Name of Student
Name of Course
Name of Class
Date of Submission
HW
Discuss how the APA Ethics Code fulfills its objectives
APA stands for the “The American Psychological Association” which refers to ethical principles combined with a code of conduct which manage psychologists. The code of ethics which can also be referred to as the Ethics code has several sections. It starts with a preamble, general principles which are five in number as well as ethical standards which are very particular. In the preamble, there is a lot of emphasis on the aspirational goals which are meant to give psychologists some form of guidance toward the ultimate ideals of psychology. These goals should assist the psychologists in arriving at a course of action which is ethical. Most of the standards of ethics are written in a broad manner for the purpose of applying varied roles to psychologists despite the fact that application of the ethical standards may differ depending on the context. However, ethical standards are hardly exhaustive (Aponte, 1994).
A good example is of an employee who used to work for a government institution but was offered a less stressful job due to advice from a clinical psychologist. Further more, the complainant showed the report to another psychologist who gave a different evaluation claiming that the interview that lasted forty minutes was not enough and can hardly sustain the outcome. The test is taken is known as the MMPI. As a result, the complainant found grounds too file for an ethical complaint against the first psychologist (Bersoff, 1996). The complainee had to submit raw data to CSPEC that had been used for evaluation. The information presented was that the complainant suffered from a manic depression illness about a year back. This was two years before the psychological evaluation which stated that the complainant should not be considered capable of handling a higher responsibility at that particular time (Austin, 1990).
CSPEC sought for opinions from two independent diplomats. One of them was an expert in clinical psychology while the other was an expert in psychological evaluation. The rules to be used were in the ethical standards of psychologists. They gave out a final resolution that the complainee the wrong reasons for the right conclusions. MMPI conclusions were inaccurate and it was presumed that they were based on a report given by a psychiatric consultant which the complainee had accepted without criticisms. A conclusion was made that the evaluation was unprofessional. CSPEC offered admonition for completion of future test administration in agreement with the psychologists’ ethical standards. This case attempts to bring out the significance of the APA ethics code in promoting public protection, maintaining standards of the profession and offering the accurate processes for complainee members (Bennett, 1990).
References
Anderson, B. (1996). The counselor and the law (4th Ed). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association publishers.
Aponte, H. (1994). “How personal can training get?” Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 20(1), 3-15.
Austin, K. (1990). Confronting malpractice: Legal and ethical dilemmas in psychotherapy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publishers.
Bennett, B. (1990). Professional liability and risk management. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association publishers.
Bersoff, D. (1996). “The virtue of principle ethics.” The Counseling Psychologist, 24(1), 86-91.
Relationship Between Examination and Vocational Teaching
Relationship Between Examination and Vocational Teaching
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Overview of the Need For Assessment of Music Students
Musical activities such as differentiated instruction, and engaging in formative assessments have become required elements in relation to teaching music in the classroom setting. Today, music teachers are required to provide evidence of the students’ progress on an individual basis, and this means that they have to devise ways in which they can track the students’ progress on a year-to-year basis (Major, 2008). The singing instruction process is considered to be an important component of the general music curriculum. As is the case in any other course, in music, there are students who will be able to match their pitches easily, while for others, they normally experience a difficulty in terms of coordinating their voices to be able to match what they are hearing (Rutkowski &Barnes, 2000). For the students who experience singing problems, they may develop and become timid singers, or dislike the singing activity if they are not encouraged to continue singing. According to Clements (2002), one of the most effective ways of providing students with a positive feedback is through regularly assessing them, and encouraging them through provision of individual students’ singing development based on their needs as students.
Different Forms of Music Assessments That Are Used in the Music Curriculum
Peer-Peer and Self-Assessment
In the elementary music training level, there is the varied use of the peer-peer and self-assessment strategies to determine the students’ progress. According to the study findings by Hepworth-Osiowy’s 2004 study, the findings indicated that up to 64.8% of the respondents noted that they used the student self-assessment approach in their classrooms (Hepworth-Osiowy, 2004). In another study that was conducted by Patterson, the study findings indicated that only 33% of the respondents used the student self-assessment approach to track the progress of the individual students in their classrooms (Patterson, 2006). Additionally, the study findings by Talley (2005) and Lane (2007) found out that only 2-3% of the respondents use the student self-assessment to track the overall progress of their students in relation to music training, or learning. In particular, according to Lane’s study findings, the response was that the student self-assessment was rarely used by the study respondents. Similarly, in a qualitative study that was conducted by Niebur (1997) on four elementary level music teachers in Arizona, the study findings showed that only one, out of the four used the student self-assessment. However, for the one music teacher who used this strategy stated that it is a valuable assessment strategy to evaluate the students’ progress.
There are different studies that have assessed the impact of student peer-to-peer assessment, and self-assessment on the music progression of the students. In a study that was conducted by Forrester and Wong (2008), they highlighted that, on one hand, the students’ peer and self-assessment had a positive impact on the general communication skills of the students, however, the study findings failed to show if this assessment strategy contributed to the students’ music skill development. Two studies by Riley (2010, and 2013) investigated the impact of the student self-assessment and generated mixed results. According to a study that was conducted by Riley (2010), there was a comparison between the second-and third-grade students in terms of singing self-assessment with the ratings that were made by three judges in four areas. The study findings indicated that both the students and the judges were in agreement in relation to the students’ using correct words in their songs, singing in time, and the use of a singing voice that was in line with the matching pitch 57% of the time. However, in another study that was conducted by Riley (2013), it indicated that the presence, or absence of the teacher’s feedback dd not affect the students’ self-assessment accuracy (Riley, 2013). However, an earlier study by Hickey (2001) on the students’ self-assessment provided different findings. In the study, the researcher selected second, and seventh grade students to participate. In addition to that, there were music composers, and teachers who were asked to rate the students’ composition. The results of this study indicated that the students had reliability difficulties in terms of assessing the compositions, and they mainly rated the compositions that they liked as creative. Hickey (2001) concluded by stating that students at different grade levels may not be in a position to assess their peers singing and compositions (Hickey, 2001).
Application of the Informal Observation as an Assessment to Students’ Music Progress
The application of the informal assessment is commonly used by music teachers to track the progress of their students. Studies by Barkley (2006) and Lane (2007) showed that informal assessment is one of the most commonly used method to measure the overall student learning. These findings were supported by the study by Delaney (2011) who found out in his qualitative study of assessment that practice among the elementary general music teachers mainly used the informal observation strategy (Delaney, 2011).
The informal observations are conducted without the use of either rating scales, or measurement tools. In addition to that, the observations are mainly not formally documented. According to McQuarrie and Sherwin (2013) study findings indicated that a majority of the music teachers assessed their students’ individual performance through the use of informal observation, rather than using a rating scale (McQuarrie and Sherwin, 2013). In a study by Patterson (2006), the study findings indicated that 100% of the respondents stated that they conducted their assessments through informal observation, 29% stated that they used a rating scale for assessment of individual students’ music performance, and 57% additionally used checklists and rating scales during their assessments (Patterson, 2006). Additionally, according to Miranda (2004), the study findings by the kindergarten music teachers showed that the teachers mainly used informal observations to collect observational impressions, but they did not formally record the children’s musical skill development (Miranda, 2004).
Group Performance
A majority of music teachers apply group performances, rather than solo acts to assess the music education progression of the students. In a study by McQuarrie and Sherwin (2013), they established that in a majority of the learning institutions, the teachers mainly use group performance, over individual acts to assess the expected singing objectives. This study finding was in-line with an earlier qualitative study that was conducted by Delaney (2011) which indicated that solo singing was infrequently used for assessment purposes by music teachers. The high level of preference for conducting group, over individual assessments by music teachers is based on the skepticism of expecting students to effectively perform solo in a classroom setting. This notion was supported by Delaney (2011) who noted that individual singing by the students may fail to attain the assessment objective because of the high possibility of the students feeling embarrassed when they are singing alone (Delaney, 2011). In addition to that, there are music teachers who feel that public performances are a form of assessment. According to Hepworth-Osiowy (2004), the study survey indicated that a majority of elementary teachers list concerts and public performances as part of their assessment of a student progress in accordance with the music lessons that they are offered. However, in Salvador’s study, although group, and public performances are considered to be part of the assessment of the overall student learning, this form of assessment failed to record the individual students’ music abilities, or skills (Salvador, 2011).
Rate of the Music Teachers Assessment on the Students’ Progress in Music
While it has been established that conducting assessments is important in determining the overall student progress in music education, there is no standardized rate, or frequency of administering these assessments. To put it into perspective, there are teachers who administer it at a higher frequency than others. According to studies by (Livingston 2000; and Lane 2007), they found out that music teachers mainly assess their students infrequently at once, or twice per month. According to Patterson (2006), a majority of the study participants i.e. 50% stated that they conducted student assessments at least once per month, 30% noted that they conducted assessments only once per marking period, 5% claimed that they conduct assessments at least once in every other class period, while no teacher acknowledged doing it in every class period.
There are studies that have shown that the frequency of assessments is dependent on the grade level of the students. This was attested by a study by Talley (2005) who noted that 41% of the study participants pointed out that they conducted zero assessments for students in the kindergarten level of education, while only 10% assessed students who were either six years, or less in relation to their music progression. For the fourth grade students, 30% of the music teachers noted that they had conducted more than six assessments on them to monitor their overall music progress, while 31% conducted either four to six assessments. It can be argued that the difference in assessments based on the grade level of the students can be because of a variety of factors such as greater contact time for the upper grade level students, or the belief of the inappropriateness of assessing the young learners (kindergarten level students).
The music teachers vary in terms of the consistency level of their assessments of the students’ progression based on the lessons that they are accorded. There are teachers who will only conduct assessments on students during the completion stages of their report cards. However, on the other hand, there are the teachers who conduct assessments on a consistent basis (Nierman, 2007). This means that they will assess the progress of the students after every lesson, or after a couple of lessons to determine their overall progress in relation to the lessons that they are learning in class. Consequently, as has been pointed out before, there are teachers who do not use any form of assessment to track their students’ progress. According to the study findings by Talley (2005), they established that in some cases, there are teachers who hold the belief that assessing their music students does not provide them with any form of indications on their overall progress.
Attitudes and Perceptions that Music Teachers Have on the Relationship Between Music Assessment and Students Progress in Music Education
It is imperative to determine the attitude, or beliefs that music teachers have on assessments, and how they impact the music students progress from an education point of view. A majority of teachers believe that conducting regular assessments on the students is instrumental in terms of gauging the current students’ understanding based on the lessons provided, and guiding their future instructions (Persellin, 2010). In this case, the assessments will provide indications to the students in relation to whether they are learning, and the areas where they are encountering challenges and therefore, they can be assisted to make the relevant progress. According to Peppers (2010) study findings, they highlighted that for a majority of music teachers conducting assessments on the music students is instrumental in terms of determining their overall progress over time, and improving the level of instruction. To put this into perspective, the teachers utilize these assessments to determine whether, or not their teaching strategies are effective, or there are areas where they need to improve to ensure that the students develop a better understanding of their lessons. These findings were in line with the study results of an earlier study by Talley (2005) whereby it was established that, for a majority of teachers, the students’ assessments are meant to adapt their instructions to fit the students’ education needs, while the secondary purpose was to assess the overall understanding of the students. This means that, while the general assumption is that, the student assessments on music lessons is meant to determine their actual progress in line with the lessons that they are provided, it is imperative that for a majority of the teachers, they use it to determine whether, or not the instruction approaches that they use are effective in terms of assisting the students to understand what they are learning in the music lessons.
There are teachers who feel that, the purpose of conducting these assessments is to monitor the progress of the students, while at the same time being in a position to tailor their instructions to meet the individual students’ needs. In this case, the teachers emphasize on utilizing the individual, instead of the group assessment strategy whereby they will identify the current progress of the students, and identify the areas where they need to have some level of improvement (Lee Nardo et al., 2006). They will then be in a better position to develop a teaching strategy that will contribute to the overall improvement in understanding and performance of the student. In addition to that, on one hand, there are music teachers who feel that conducting examinations, or assessments is instrumental in identifying, and challenging the musically gifted students (Legg, 2010). However, for other teachers, they feel that the use of examinations can contribute towards addressing the students’ need for conducting remediation, or extra classes so that they can improve their overall performance.
Still, there are music teachers who feel that the only reason to conduct examinations on music students is for the purpose of assigning grades to the students. These teachers highlighted that providing examinations provided them with an opportunity to grade their students and provide them with an appropriate feedback on the areas that they can improve. In addition to that, according to Peppers (2010), the study findings indicated that assessments are meant to motivate students in relation to their current progress. For Talley (2005), conducting assessments is the best way that the teachers can use to validate their music programs. This means that, if the students are performing at a high level, then it validates music being part of a school subject in an academic institution.
Vocal Teaching Development and Examination
The singing tests that are designed to test a student’s progress in terms of music education should be designed in such a way that they fulfil the purpose of the assessment. If the purpose of the assessment is to examine a student’s voice development, then the examination tasks and scales for measurement should be conducted in a manner, which is appropriate for the construct that will need to be used (Leong, 2010). For instance, the Singing Voice Development Measure (SVDM) is normally used to assess the vocal developmental characteristics such as the range of the voice, and the use of the singing over the talking voice (Rutkowski, 1990). In a study that was conducted by Levinowitz et al. (1998), it showed that the SVDM can accurately be used to determine the vocal, or singing development for the music students in grades 1 to 5.
If the intention of the assessment is to examine the students singing accuracy, which is the ability of a student to sing the specific, or the right pitches in the tune, then there is the need to design the appropriate tasks and scoring system for the student. An important point to note is that the assessment should take into consideration the initial range of the singer, meaning that a student should not be assessed for accuracy of a tune, which is outside his, or her singing range. For the assessment of the singing accuracy, music teachers can design singing tests through the selection of specific singing tasks. According to studies by Robert and Davies (1975) and Nichols (2016) there is the need first to determine the specific pitch matching for the selected singing task, and the overall ranges of the students in terms of singing. After the selection of the singing task, a teacher may make the decision of whether to determine the number of students who can sing a specific interval accurately i.e., as is the case when that song is being performed, or determine the number of patterns that the students have mastered in a specific music piece. An important point to note is that, when it comes to pitch matching, there is the need for the music teacher to select at least three items, which are the single pitch, interval and pattern to establish good reliability of the singing test (Nichols, 2016).
When it comes to song singing to determine if a student has grasped a tune, any song can be used. However, as Nichols (2016) noted, the performance of a student on one song should not be used as a representative to the overall students’ ability in relation to singing. This means that, it is imperative for the teacher to use more than one song, and engage the student in different tasks so that to determine the overall student ability in terms of singing a song. This means that two, or three songs could be used to evaluate the tuneful singing of the student. In addition to that, there is the need to use several pitch matching items, sing songs that have different ranges, tones, and even accuracy to determine a student’s overall ability during their music education (Wolf, 2005).
Range is an important feature for the teachers when it comes to assessing some of the songs that they have selected. When selecting a song that will be used to assess the range of the students’ voice, music teachers are advised to avoid pitches that are considered to be too low (Wolf, 2005). An important point to note is that, when selecting a song that will be used for assessment purposes, the song should align to the students’ range and tessitura to ensure that the teacher can assess a singer’s overall development from a music perspective. In a majority of the cases, the teacher will be better placed to know whether, or not the selected range is considered to be too high, or too low in relation to whether the student can sing some of the pitches, but is unable to do so for others (Philpott, 2012). Alternatively, a teacher will be able to determine if the pitch is high, or low if the students are singing at a higher, or lower octave. An important point to note is that, for a music teacher who is an expert in this field, one will be able to differentiate between the students who make the choice to do this (sing at a higher or lower octave to match the selected range), and the ones who switch because they feel they must (Hedden, 2012).
For a majority of the young music students, not all of them have developed the ability to use their full voice range. The SVDM testing tool can be used for the evaluation purposes to identify the varying degrees of range, and singing voice use. There are five constructs that will be found, which are: pre-singer, or chants, the speaking range singer, the uncertain singer, the initial range singer, and the singer. The last step is for a musical student who has developed the full use of his, or her voice range (Rutwoski, 1990).
After the selection of the range and register, a music teacher needs to make choice on how the different test items will be presented to the students. One of the testing strategies that can be used on students is, students can be requested to echo pitch sequences through the call-and-response vocal modeling. An important point to note is that, when teaching children who are in the lower academic levels, it is advisable to use an adult’s female voice, another child’s voice, or even a musical instrument such as piano, over the use of a male voice (Resta, 2020). The reason for this is that, these students respond poorly to the voice of a male instructor in relation to echoing the pitch.
During the examination of the students, there is the need to apply the use of text. The students have to sing using text, or through the use of the neutral syllable. However, before its application, the role of the text needs to be determined. If one of the purposes, or objective of the examination is to test memorization, then the use of text should be included. On the other hand, if the objective of conducting the test is to assess the single pitches, or intervals, then the use of the text may not necessarily be required. When conducting tests for an echo task for the students, then neutral syllables can be used (Gault, 2002).
For music teachers, before they engage in the process of testing students, they have to make the decision on the approach that they will use to score the overall students’ responses. For instance, a teacher can make the decision to count the number of the accurate pitches that will be used to create the score. Alternatively, the teachers can use rubric, or scales (Wise and Sloboda, 2008). For a majority of teachers, they face time constraints, and in such cases, it means that the teachers tend to use cut-off score during the consideration of the ‘in-tune’ students testing. The reason for this is that, it will save the teachers time in relation to scoring the pitch during the time for testing over recording the audio that will be used for later scoring. However, for teachers who do not face challenges of time, they may record audios that will be used for the later scoring purposes. Regardless of the scoring strategy that is used, the intention is to ensure that they can monitor the overall performance of the students, and therefore determine the approaches that will be used to improve their overall scores.
Challenges on Conducting Assessments By Music Teachers
A majority of the music teachers face challenges in relation to assessing their student’s performance in terms of music education, and training. The challenges that they face impede their ability to assess their students in an effective manner. Some of the most common challenges that the teachers face is: they are dealing with a lot of students, they lack enough time to assess all the students, the class time, or duration is too short for them to make regular class assessments on all the students (Riley, 2010). In addition to that, for some teachers, they are overwhelmed by other tasks such as preparation of music programs, events and performances.
For some teachers the pressure for the successful student performances is higher than the ability to demonstrate to the key stakeholders of a learning institution such as school heads, other teachers, students, and even parents that they have helped the students in terms of learning new things when it comes to music (Riley, 2013). Furthermore, in some cases, there are teachers who lack manageable record-keeping system. There are teachers who do not have a way in which they can record the assessment data immediately. For others, they feel that the use of a record-keeping system such as video-recording the students will take away their experience from them, and this may affect their overall performance (Roberts & Davies, 1975). Also, in some cases, there are educators who face the challenge of incorporating these assessments to be part of their daily lessons. The reason for this is that, they tend to encounter class management issues and this means that they cannot conduct the assessments as frequently as they would like.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, the researcher has utilized previous research studies to provide indications on the relationship between examination, or assessments on music education. Different studies have provided the indication that through assessments, teachers are able to determine the overall progress of the students, and note the areas that need, or require improvement. It is important to point out that the music teachers use different from assessments such as students’ self-assessment, and observations to determine the overall progress of the students. There are different factors that need to be taken into consideration when assessing a student such as the students’ voice range. In addition to that, for a majority of teachers, they face a variety of challenges in relation to conducting assessments such as large class sizes, being overwhelmed with engaging in other activities such as organizing the music programs, and the music lessons being too short for the teachers to being able to conduct these assessments.
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