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Handout 2.4 Associative Learning–Classical Conditioning
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Handout 2.4: Associative Learning–Classical Conditioning
The behavioral perspective takes the stance that everything is learned. For example, look at the case of Little Albert. Albert was a young child who was conditioned to fear white rats. The association of fear to rat was learned via classical conditioning. That is, Albert was exposed to a rat (neutral stimuli) then a loud noise (UCS and an aversive stimuli). He showed a fear response to the aversive stimuli by jumping up and crying (UCR). After many trials, Albert showed the fear response (CR) to the stimuli of rat (CS). This is classical conditioning. For the following examples, fill in the unconditioned stimuli and response as well as the conditioned stimuli and response.
1. Bethany is sitting outside sunbathing when a spider crawls on her leg and bites her. She jumps up and yells in pain. Now when she sees a spider, she jumps and yells.
UCS: bites her
UCR: she jumps up and yells in pain
CS: spider
CR: when she sees a spider, she jumps and yells
2. Ramon is in the mall parking garage when a man holding a gun to his head attacks him. He screams in fear. Now Ramon shudders with fear whenever he sees a parking garage.
UCS: a man holding a gun to his head
UCR: he screams in fear
CS: parking garage
CR: shudders with fear
3. Simone was only 5 when she was on a plane that almost crashed. She remembers the plan landing very hard and bouncing all over the runway and being very afraid. Now when Simone thinks about flying, she becomes very afraid.
UCS: the plane landing very hard and bouncing all over the runaway
UCR: being very afraid
CS: flying
CR: very afraid of flying
4. Tamika lives in an old dorm on campus that has a plumbing issue. One day, she was taking a shower when someone flushed the toilet and all the cold water went out and the hot water burned her. She yelled and jumped out of the way. Now when she is in the shower, if someone flushes, she jumps out of the way.
UCS: when someone flushed the toilet and cold water went out and the hot water burned her
UCR: she yelled and jumped out of the way
CS: if someone flashes
CR: she jumps out of the way
5. Dave was out with his friends one day when they decided to go white water rafting, unfortunately, the boat immediately overturned and Dave wound up on the wrong side of the river, away from everyone else and with no access. It took hours for rescuers to cross to him and rescue him. While he waited he became anxious and fearful. Now when his friends suggest any activity on the river, Dave becomes anxious and fearful.
UCS: the boat immediately overturned and Dave wound up on the wrong side of the river, away from everyone else and with no access
UCR: while he waited he became anxious and fearful
CS: any activity on the river
CR: becomes anxious and fearful
Disappearance of childhood
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Disappearance of childhood
The world has witnessed a comprehensive social transformation since time memorial. According to Harold Iniss, the rapid advances in communication technology for instance have affected human thinking in a variety of perspectives. To begin with, it has affected the areas where thought develops, what human uses to think as well as things that we think about. Different people as well as groups have taken divergent perspective in the value of childhood since early fifteenth century. Between the sixteenth and seventeenth century for instance, childhood was valued by a sizeable world population. It was considered as a natural order of things. J. Plumb argued that a child was an object of respect in addition to being a special creature that had distinct needs and nature. The writer states that this resulted because of the separation and protection of the child from adult world. However, Plumb differs by arguing that the separation and protection were done as a result of uniqueness of a child and not the other way round. In my opinion, the writer’s argument is founded as children were separated to read as well as write.
Perception towards childhood has enormously changed since sixteenth century. To begin with, the childhood characteristics including behavior, language, as well as discipline have undergone immense transformation since then. For instance, in the modern times children dress as adults in addition to smoking in the school lavatory, a behavior that was not practiced by the minors. Moreover, the games that were played by the children in the students have changed too. In the past, such child games were played without special attention from the adults and were done so for pleasure unlike current games played under supervision of adults. Besides, the players seek reputation in the game as fans turn to cheer and jeer them. Besides, childhood has also changed in the perspective of child’s language, desires as well as attitude. Children speak as adults; have attitudes and desires resembling those of adults and even have physical similarities with adults. According to the writer, the above mentioned behaviors prompted some activist groups in U.S. to lobby for the amendment of children rights to resemble those of the adults. Such a bill would ensure that mandatory child education is phased out as such a law only oppressed the subjects against their wish of fully participating in societal issues. The change of children’s behavior is also manifested in the eleven thousand percent increase in crime rates among children under the age of fifteen between 1950 -1979.
The disappearances of shame, literacy as well as education have all affected childhood in one way or another. To begin with, the transformation of social literacy to craft literacy enhanced discrimination of children based on their social class. Social literacy empowered all the children to read and write unlike craft literacy which favored children from privileged class. Through reading, the permanent end of childhood was imminent since children could access secrets meant for adults. However, this was only possible with non-literature sources as literature ensured proper collection and storage of cultural shielding the children from accessing them. Generally, literacy contributed to the end of childhood, a fact supported by Locke who argues that illiteracy and childhood are inseparable.
On the other hand, shame also has effects on the disappearance of childhood. Firstly, it has always been the role of adults in the society to keep some things away from children’s access. However, this has changed in the modern society and shame is never an issue nowadays. For instance, the children of minor ages of twelve and thirteen are currently used in sexually-enticing advertisements in the U.S where they are lucratively remunerated. Moreover, children should also be shielded from specific facets of life including violence, contradictions, mysteries as well as tragedies that they are supposed to know at their younger age. It is considered shameful for adults to reveal such secrets to the minors. According to Quintilian, adults should be blushing especially when talking to the children on issues considered secretive such as sexual secrets. This notion has however changed lately thereby phasing off the idea of childhood. It is therefore noteworthy that childhood can never exist where the idea of shame is not well developed.
Besides, education has also fuelled the disappearance of childhood idea. It is believed that education transforms an individual from childhood to adulthood. According to Rousseau, man is improved by education just as plants by cultivation. In the past, there was no such an idea as provision of education tor the minors. Children were taken to schools at an age of seven or better still, ten when they were considered old enough to be independent. It was believed that education empowered the minors to reason as adults and be able to perform things the same way as their seniors. However, the modern world encourages the provision of education to children at an earlier age.
Finally, industrialization also contributed to the disappearance of childhood. At the outset, the eighteenth century industrialization necessitated the use of children in factories as well as mining sites since they could provide cheap labor. This forestalled the rapid development of education, literacy as well as childhood in England in the seventeenth century.
However, the idea of childhood can not be stopped, not now. For instance, the middle and upper class society protected and nurtured the childhood in England amid challenges posed by civilization. The idea of childhood thereafter spread widely in Europe in the late eighteenth century. Consequently, schools were invented in Europe where childhood was made compulsory as a result of European civilization. The things that used to undermine childhood in the past have to change. In 1780 for instance, both adults and children were treated similarly. Children were subjected to sentence for hanging just like adults. This according to Charles Dickens did not and could not deter or destroy the idea of childhood.
Generally, the idea of childhood has swerved through series transformation since the beginning of sixteenth century. The children’s behavior, way of dressing, degree of discipline as well as language has immensely changed due to changes in levels of literacy, education as well as civilization. Moreover, the disappearance of shame has also contributed to the disappearance of childhood. However, some thinkers believe that the idea of childhood can never fade away permanently as measures are already in place to revive the idea.
Alternative Medicine in Pharmacology
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Alternative Medicine in Pharmacology
Goldman, Peter. “Herbal medicines today and the roots of modern pharmacology.” Annals of internal medicine 135.8_Part_1 (2001): 594-600.
The modern principles of pharmacology that have enhanced the development of safer and more effective drug production were guided by the existence of folk medicine. Through the measurements of concentration and chemical components, herbal medicine was improved. Through the application of randomized trials and controlled trials herbs have been evaluated and found to be effective. It is noted that the adverse effects of herb medicine go unreported and the inconsistency in their components raise issues with the safety of the treatment model. Their effects cannot be certain as their study shows standardization due to lack of consistency thus unlike modern medicine later complications of herbal medicine cannot be linked. The article has recorded evidence-based models that show herbs and modern medicine cannot be used together due to uncertainty of the reactions involved. Although studies conducted indicated effectiveness of herbal medicine, the issues on safety and consistency need to address to ensure that herbal medicine as alternatives to pharmacology medicine can rely on upon without concerns, thus the need for standardization as the burden of proof is on drug and drug administration. As alternatives to pharmacology medicine, herbal medicine is often regulated as dietary supplements even though they are not officially subject to regulatory clearance that pharmacology medicine is needed, such as proved effects, safety and demonstrated later effects associated with their consumptions.
Li, Shao, et al. “Network pharmacology in traditional chinese medicine.” Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine 2014 (2014).
The next discovery model in drugs has seen the rise of network pharmacology that focuses on the shift from one drug, one target to the network target, with multiple forms of medication nor even treatment. This provision is used to prove the traditional holistic approach that was utilized by the Chinese traditional herbalists. This form with the used of technological advancement can be the next future of pharmacology medicine providing alternatives for a targeted drug. The traditional Chinese medicine has often offered an in-depth perspective that helps to control various diseases control measures. The integration of traditional Chinese model through computation and controlled experiment application shows an enhanced potential for TCM to be the next-generation model of drugs and research. The complexity of humans’ systems in the human body, the integration of TCM into network pharmacology helps to guide with scientific evidence the components of herbal medicine and herbs with the intervention program aimed at revealing actions required through methodology provisions and developed new opportunities into upgrading the ingredients of herbal medicine. The development of network pharmacology is essential as it will help guide and develop the methods of treatment that follow holistic approach, providing a wider coverage and enhanced treatment models that are well informed and apply the use of herbal medicine that is integrated through the rapid process of biological development and processes in systems biology, network pharmacology and the chemical biology. The understanding molecular complexity of TCM (herbals) in modernization is a significant step to the development of medicine and offers systematic mechanisms to address developing health complications.
Mills, Edward, et al. “African herbal medicines in the treatment of HIV: Hypoxis and Sutherlandia. An overview of evidence and pharmacology.” Nutrition journal 4.1 (2005): 19.
The primary mode of treatment for HIV/ AIDS and other related complication in Africa is the use of traditional medicine that is often herbal medicine. The article’s recommendation is on the provisions and enhancement of efforts by medical practitioners and researchers to develop and evaluate the benefits associated with the natural use of herbal medicine in the treatment of HIV/AIDS. Some countries in Africa through the ministry of Health have endorsed the use of herbal medicine in control and treatment of HIV/AIDS, this support comes amidst the lack of clinical trials and no efficiency proved with safety issues discussed. The low-evidence of harm upon herbal drug interactions with ARVs has seen the increased usage of herbal medicine. The provision of valid information by professional health practitioners would help reduce harm and effects associated with failed expectations of herbal medicines and unnecessary costs derived through more therapy and treatment due to the effects of herbal medicines. In relation to my topic, the review of this article is focused on a review of specific herbs supported as a treatment for HIV/AIDS which are; African Potato and Sutherlandia.
Verpoorte, Robert, Young Hae Choi, and Hye Kyong Kim. “Ethnopharmacology and systems biology: a perfect holistic match.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100.1-2 (2005): 53-56.
In the prescription of traditional medicine as alternatives to modern medicine, the traditional doctors applied the holistic approach. This often includes offering patients with individually customized herbs wit severally combined ingredients. The modern-day approach in the development of drugs has seen the approach focus on a single target with a single compound and single set of effects. This approach is a reductionist that mostly involves the testing of single compounds at molecular levels. The advantages derived from a traditional holistic approach is that it is based on the use of human biological systems that make it more effective as it helps to obtain more information that would help in the understanding model of actions to be used in the development of effective medicine. In the holistic approach that also includes a systems biology approach will help detect the interaction of two or more substances recording their effects and the metabolic compounds converted in the body as the reductionist approach will recognize neither as it is set to recognize activities on known targets. The recognition of compounds that are able to usefully detect effects of compounds on test organisms apply the use of metabolomics as a major tool which can establish traditional methods clearly in traditional medicine.
Zhang, Gui-biao, et al. “Network pharmacology: a new approach for Chinese herbal medicine research.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013 (2013).
In the general issue of alternative medicine, the Chinese herbal medicine has been viewed as integral in this transitional process that seeks to address complex diseases using various approaches with multiple effects on multiple targets rather than the usual modes that relied on a single disease with a single target on one single gene. The Chinese herbal medicine that is based on the human system biology and polypharmacology has in a great way influenced a lot of aspects that affect the drug discovery strategies. Though it has been recognized and appreciated for the development of theories on which it is beneficial and effective contributions to the public health in that the drugs can have multiple effects on multiple targets rather than just a single target. It has not been fully acknowledged, as the mechanisms involved are scarce. The article looks into introducing network pharmacology, its application and significance in the modern medicine era. The role of Chinese herbal medicine in the development of strategy and network development in medicinal research is crucial in the application and development of alternative effective pharmacology medicine.
Works Cited
Goldman, Peter. “Herbal medicines today and the roots of modern pharmacology.” Annals of internal medicine 135.8_Part_1 (2001): 594-600.
Li, Shao, et al. “Network pharmacology in traditional chinese medicine.” Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine 2014 (2014).
Mills, Edward, et al. “African herbal medicines in the treatment of HIV: Hypoxis and Sutherlandia. An overview of evidence and pharmacology.” Nutrition journal 4.1 (2005): 19.
Verpoorte, Robert, Young Hae Choi, and Hye Kyong Kim. “Ethnopharmacology and systems biology: a perfect holistic match.” Journal of Ethnopharmacology 100.1-2 (2005): 53-56.
Zhang, Gui-biao, et al. “Network pharmacology: a new approach for chinese herbal medicine research.” Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2013 (2013).