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Cultural Materialism
Cultural Materialism stems from anthropology which is the study of human beings. Culture, a broad concept that encompasses cultural materialism refers to socially conditioned activities and thoughts associated with social groups and populations. Materialism on the other hand refers to technological and economic factors that play a significant role in the molding of society. It exists as dialectical, historical and cultural (Rogers 10).
Cultural materialism is a school of thought which emphasizes on understanding human culture by examining visible material conditions such as food supply, climatic and geographic variation. It is fundamental in expounding a clear understanding of the causes of differences and similarities among cultures and societies (Milner 8). The main premise of this theory is that human social life is a response to practical problems of earthly existence. It opposes strategies that deny the legitimacy of the feasibility of scientific accounts of human behavior. This approach backs Marx’s original strategy by breaking away from the Hegelian notion of all systems evolving through a dialect of contradictory negations and adding reproductive pressure and ecological variables.
Culture Materialism can also be classified into three levels that is, infrastructure, structure and the superstructure. The infrastructure is composed of the production modes that is, technology and practices initiated to expand, maintain and limit population, the structure entails domestic and political environments while the superstructure is the recreational and aesthetic products and services (Milner 14).
Cultural materialism tends to be at odds with idealism which as idealists believe in the transcend ability of ideas while materialists believe that culture does not and should not transcend its material trappings. It therefore plays a vital role in bridging the gap between Marxism and Post- Modernism.
This approach despite providing sufficient limelight on the integration of culture and materialism faces criticism due to various reasons. First of all, Marxists argue that this concept fails to address the influence of structure on infrastructure, for example, the influence of organizational patterns such as governments on resources which is currently not the case as structure to some extent influences the infrastructure (Gelinas 45).
Secondly from Gelinas’ view, post modernists believe that relying on ‘etic’ which is mostly behavioral is inappropriate in the study of culture (45). Idealists on the other hand criticize cultural materialists for ignoring belief and genetics and base their foundation on the level of significance of the ‘emic’ which should be more than the cultural materialists allow. It is essential to note therefore that both Marxists and Post modernists allow for extreme use of either one of the two, that is, thought and behavior while they fail to balance the appropriate application of both components for better conceptualization.
Thirdly, Cultural materialism is seen as too simplistic and fails to consider spiritual and intellectual influences on society which are intangible in nature thus cannot be adequately accounted for only materially (Milner 28).
Two writers known to have significantly contributed to the documentation and elaboration of cultural Materialism from different perspectives are;
Raymond Williams.
Marvin Harris.
Raymond Williams backed this theory by integrating structures of feeling which are values that change and are formed as humans live and interact with the material world. These values challenge dominant ideological forms and create an implication that values are organic and dynamic. Thus cultural materialism embraces change while giving variations in perspective based on our choice to suppress or reveal readings of past actions (Rogers 42).
Williams further extrapolated the understanding of the relationship between culture and society through his essay ‘Culture is Ordinary’. In order to clarify this, he borrowed Marxist’s tenet of culture being interpreted in relation to its underlying production system and glossed it with culture being a way of life and that arts, are a part of a social structure which economic change radically affects. Culture is political as the social process addressed through political analysis is embedded in culture (Rogers 56).
William’s explains that political analysis acts as a specialized framework used to understand culture as a whole way of life. The aspects of radical criticism, politics being cultural, political struggle that takes the shape of cultural forms are expressed largely by Williams in his work. The solutions to these lie in the recognition of limited but available space for viable alternatives, the need for national identity as well as incorporation of new technology such as the internet as useful media for communication necessary to drive the change.
Cultural materialism has also been discussed at length by Marvin Harris who defines culture as composing of religion, politics, art, science, superstition, language, the social structure among others, and materialism encompassing materiality which is fundamental to reality (Gelinas 68). His concept of cultural materialism is basically borrowed from anthropological teachings especially Marxist’s materialism. According to him, cultural materialism aims to explain the cultural organization, symbolism and ideology within the materialistic framework of infrastructure, structure and superstructure as earlier defined.
In addition, the infrastructure which consists of fundamental human survival elements is further divided into two subcomponents; the production and reproduction modes. The structure consists of the domestic and political economy while the superstructure consists of shared cognitive and ideological patterns and societal behaviors. The development of a synergy amongst these components is strengthened by the Principle of Infrastructural Determinism. It takes into consideration the role of the infrastructure as the basis of the socio-cultural life as well as the foundation for the structure. The structure then asserts a strong influence on the superstructure. The knock on effects of these relationships could operate backwards but with less frequency and significance (Milner 50).
The basis of Harris’ Cultural materialism is on the belief that anthropology exists as a science which is governed by law hence infrastructures should subsequently be governed by rules and regulations ( Milner 54).
Several sociological terms can be related to Cultural Materialism. These include;
Anthropology, a social science which covers the study of traditional cultures as well as the evolution of species.
Infrastructural determinism, a major principle introduced by Harris who explains the relationship between the infrastructure, structure and super structure and their respective order in the overall structure (Gelinas 73).
Marxism, a modern social theory that derives its main components from Marx’s ideologists. This theory greatly as envisioned by Rodgers 63, emphasizes class struggle and material causation.
Society which is a group of people living in a distinct territory is subjected to a common system of political governance, and share a common culture.
Class, refers to socioeconomic differentiations between groups of individuals which create variations in their life opportunities and power.
The theoretical framework refers to a collection of interrelated concepts. A theoretical framework incorporates concepts and explains the relation of one concept to another. A sociological theoretical framework takes into consideration social aspects or concepts in theories and interrelates them (Gramberge 22). These concepts or variables are then subjects to hypothesis testing to determine their dependability.
Culture and materialism are basic concepts considered in the social sphere. Cultural Materialism takes into consideration the external environment composed of the physical/ biological environment, the political and technological environment which influences cultural changes (Gramberge 43). Culture is molded by factors such as customs, beliefs, taboos, geographical locations among others. These make up the subset of the cultural concept that forms the dependent variable. Materialism on the other hand focuses on the conditions that humans are exposed to such as economic and technological changes which are independent and hence act as driving forces for cultural dynamicity.
The sociological theoretical framework also incorporates the infrastructure, structure and superstructure as basic social variables. These are then hypothetically tested to prove the relationship amongst them to come up with a well founded theory.
Culture, materialism, infrastructure, structure and superstructure are concepts that relate to cultural materialism.
Cultural Materialism is a theory that has been developed recently and still faces challenges from idealists and post- modernists. However, cultural materialism sheds light on the perception of the need to incorporate rules and regulations in scientific explorations. In addition, the interrelationship between the infrastructure, structure and superstructure gives an appreciation of the importance of interactions and mutual dependence of life’s spheres both emic and etic (Gelinas 88).
From Raymond William’s perspective, the need to embrace change is essential to pave way for personal growth. This however is left to humans to choose. Making the right choices offers future opportunities for development. Criticism should also be embraced wholesomely for specific changes to take place.
Works Cited
Gelinas, Grace. The Encyclopedia of Socio-cultural Anthropology. London; New York: Routledge.1997.
Rogers, Danny. Cultural Materialism: the science of culture. Iowa: University of Iowa.
1999.
Milner, Andrew. The Essence of Cultural Materialism.UK: Sage.2000.
Gramberge, Krisberg. Theoretical Framework: sociology in perspective. Melbourne: Harcourt Brace.2001.
Cultural Intersection
Cultural Intersection:
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Cultural Intersection
In Italo Calvino’s book “If on a Winter’s night a traveller”, the cultural intersections of class, race, sexuality or gender are well explored through a language that is simple and clear to the reader. It is through this book that these variables which are attached to individuals are inserted into current theoretical models of the family. The text and language of this novel is developed to explain to the reader how a culture of reading can be developed through encouraging the readers the essence of creating self interests in reading of books, texts, novels and others (Italo Calvino, 1981, p. 297). The texts awareness of itself as text greatly affects the cultural critiques, insights or revelations which are at work in that it instructs the reader on how to read it and what is to be read in a very unusual manner. The focus on the writerly experience and writing comments on the cultural production of the book in that this post-modern novel combines a detective story with love through a sardonic dissection of the industry of publishing in the reading allegory. It displays the frustration through which two readers become comically disappointed in their attempts to finish the same novel repeatedly.
Cultural representations are well developed in “If on a Winter’s Night a Traveller” through the use of dialect, slang, language and experiments coupled with dialogue, like for instance, there is a case of a reader who goes through a lot of difficulties in the endeavour to find a copy of Italo Calvino’s novel. This novel is therefore a mystery story filled with a treasure hunt, a satire and a romance. It wins the readers attention in that it begins with explaining to them how the book is supposed to be read. This gently chiding and joking by the author is what makes the tone of the book to be a funny metafictional novel which does not only insert its author but the readers as well.
The use of language presents cultural authenticity and insight in the novel in that the author successfully includes the reader to be the major character in the book and assumes the second person thus making the book to be not only a novel but a novel within a novel which contains other novels. Few authors have been brave enough to include the reader thus this inclusion makes the novel to be a subtle undermining of reality. The author has also included cultures which were just made up thus making the inclusion of isolated chapters in the novel to become intriguing just like the literary hunt since each one of them cuts off at a very suspenseful moment leaving the reader guessing what will happen next. The author successfully invites the reader in sharing in the cultural experience through bringing them on board in the novel as second person.
The author’s refection regarding culture in this novel is affected in the endeavour to write about the homeland from distanced location, emigration or exile since it has been observed that many writers, in their displaced existence have generally tended to excel in their works as if the change in the atmosphere or environment acts as a big stimulant to them (Italo Calvino, 2010, p. 374). In most dislocated circumstances, such literature has been referred to as “Exile Literature” (Italo Calvino, & William Weaver, 1979, p. 479). For instance, Calvino’s “If on a Winter’s night a traveller” is an example of an Exile literature in which the author has addressed well the contrast of cultural expectations, languages and cultural interactions in the experience as a traveller, emigrant or exile.
Dislocation or distance has a greater impact on the arrangement of various narratives and Italo Calvino’s book is no exception. Distance or dislocation has an impact that indeed, the exiled writer could not even have prospered if there was no exile and thus this work plus other greater works have prospered because their authors were in exile. It is through the book that it can be portrayed that culture is recognized through projections of otherness in which the transmission of national culture and traditions became the major theme in world literature (M. Keith Booker, 1993, p. 863).
In this novel and others, the theme of lost, unknown and/or dislocated relatives comes up in that it portrays how various authors have written great works while they are in exile to address various social, culturally and national issues which affect the human race. The theme of dislocation is used to indicate how exiled authors have used their time in exile to write about various issues affecting humanity, something that could not have been achieved if there was no exile (International Association for Semiotic Studies. Congress, Irmengard Rauch, & Gerald F, Carr, 1999, p. 472). The theme of dislocated, unknown or lost relatives has therefore been utilized by Italo Calvin in the book “If on a Winter’s Night a traveller” and other exiled authors’ works to create their cultural narratives through the comparison of life in exile and life at the homeland. The exiled authors’ sense of cultural identity is greatly affected through the distanced relations since they forced to make a comparison of homeland life situations and the environment in exile. This makes conclusions regarding the two environments to be a difficult task for the authors in exile.
The theme of dislocated, lost or unknown relatives is strengthened through various commentaries made in the novels regarding cultural ties, ruptures, connections and affiliations (Italo Calvino, 1981). This is because at first, the effect that exile has on the writers and on their works seems to be apparently paradoxical since the exile at first seems to be both a liberating and shocking experience. There is an apparent paradox because it manifests the prevailing tension which keeps the strings attached between the author’s place of exile and the place of origin. In order for exiled authors to free themselves from the imminent enmeshing strings which tend to pull the strings attached in opposite ways, then such authors have to write or engage themselves in other artistic expressions (Italo Calvino, 2010, p. 379). There is a longing in exile literature in that there is an urge to satisfy the various cultural intersections that are exhibited in both the homeland and the country of exile which authors attempt in all ways to satisfy and justify the end.
In conclusion, cultural intersections are very vital components in the lives of not only exiled authors but also students, travellers and any other individual going in a foreign country for studies, tourism or other reasons. The theme of dislocation is therefore rampantly used in addressing the various cultural strains, ruptures, connections or affiliations which are encountered by individuals living away from their homelands. It is a fact that works done in a different cultural setting have been bound to be more great and attractive as compared to works belonging to authors residing in their home countries.
Works Cited
Italo Calvino. If On A Winter’s Night A Traveller, New York, Random House, 2010, p. 379
Italo Calvino. If on a winter’s night a traveller, A Helen and Kurt Wolff Bk, Harvest book, California, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981, p. 297
Italo Calvino, & William Weaver. If on a winter’s night a traveller, California, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1979, p.689
M. Keith Booker. Literature and domination: sex, knowledge, and power in modern fiction, Washington DC, University Press of Florida, 1993, p.435
Welch D. Everman. Who says this?: the authority of the author, the discourse, and the reader, Crosscurrents/modern critiques, A Chicago Classic, Modern critiques third series: Crosscurrents, California, New York, SIU Press, 1988, p. 831
International Association for Semiotic Studies. Congress, Irmengard Rauch, & Gerald F. Carr. Semiotics around the world: synthesis in diversity : proceedings of the Fifth Congress of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, Berkeley, 1994, Volume 1, Approaches to semiotics, Semiotics Around the World: Synthesis in Diversity: Proceedings of the Fifth Congress of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, Berkeley, 1994, Irmengard Rauch, Volume 126 of Beihefte Zur Zeitschrift Fur die Alttestamentliche Wissensch, Volume 1; Volume 5 of Proceedings of the … congress of the International Association for Semiotic Studies, International Association for Semiotic Studies, Walter de Gruyter, 1999, p. 472
Cultural International Business
Cultural International Business
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Cultural of International Business
Introduction
Globalization of the economy has brought both challenges and opportunities for the world trade. Across the boundaries, there has been a increase in the flow of labor capital and factors of production. The opportunities for production offshore and outsourcing in the service and the manufacturing sectors have too increased. Cultural barriers, environmental uncertainty and managerial complexity are among the challenges that economic globalization has meet.
A study of cultural materialism would help on to understand better the complex cultural environment that affects business in the global system. Internalization has been described as a very important strategy which businesses can use to exploit opportunities found in the global world of trade. Cultural materialism can be described as an anthropological research oriented and which was first studied by Marvin Harris. Cultural materialism is also described as an ecological and evolutionary system of theory which tries to give an account to the maintenance, origin, and change of the social cultural systems.
Ideas of Cultural materialism presented by Marvin Harris
According to Harris cultural materialism is premised on the fact that the human social life is largely a response that is made to the practical problems existing in the world. Marvin Harris’ aimed at laying the foundations of the scientific study of the society. Harris theory foundation is that a particular society production mode( for example the work patterns and technology) and especially regarding food and the mode of reproduction( meaning growth and population levels) in their interaction and contact with natural environment has great impact the social cultural change and stability (Elwell 2001). Harris asserts that societies are systems and the widespread social beliefs and practices are supposed to be compatible with the society’s infrastructures. The infrastructures here mean the modes of reproduction and production and the interaction with the natural environment. The infrastructures are a representation of the ways found in a society used for regulation of both the amount and type of the resource that the society needs to be sustained. Thus much of Harris work circles around giving explanations of cultural systems such as norms ideologies beliefs values and also the various social institutions and practices by using production population and ecological variables. The infrastructure is used to represent practices and technologies through which social cultural systems have adapted to their environments. This activity is so important to the survival of individuals as well as the social cultural systems and thus the adoption of the technologies as Harris maintains will have massive effects on the cultural beliefs and values and the human institutions (Harris 1991).
Further Harris fully explored the effects of reproductive and productive factors on the social institutions such as religion, family and work place and also the impact on ideologies the widespread human ideals and beliefs such as feminism, cow worship and eating taboos. Harris however doesn’t claim that super structural and structural factors are dependant merely upon the infrastructure of a society. Rather Harris view is that super structural and structural factor factors interact with production process and the population level.
The framework developed by Harris is capable of the integration of a wide range of empirical observations and theoretical insights within its scope. His conception of structure and superstructure has further been developed so as to incorporate more anthropological and sociological theory. At the core of his cultural materialism is his instance that the relationships existing between production and population form the basis of all social cultural systems and that this base has gigantic effects on the rest of the systems.
How the understanding of Marvin’s ideas of cultural materialism have helped in understanding of the complex
It’s precisely because of the fact that the different infrastructures that are found in different environment in the widespread societies that globalization of business has become so complex and difficult. The infrastructures are the representatives the practices and the technologies by which the social cultures adopt to their environment. Different societies have different technologies and practice (Seabrook 2004).
As Harris asserts the societies are systems and the widespread social beliefs and practices are supposed to be compatible with the society’s infrastructures. Compatibility of the infrastructures and social beliefs and practices becomes very crucial. The different societies have their own social beliefs and practices and when infrastructures of another society are imported compatibility becomes an issue. This can be understood clearly by looking at some of the implications of the different infrastructures on international business. First and forest different cultural background have adversely affected export and imports business. Due to the different cultures across the world some industries have been unable to export their products to some countries and when the exportation is available then the goods which they export may be limited because not many people would have been transformed to the culture of using their type of products. For example food industries cant export any product of pork to Muslim countries profitably because their religion is against eating of anything associated with pork because pig are viewed as dirty to them.
The way of communication is different with the different cultures. Terms used in some culture might sound very harsh in other cultures. Thus the way in which words are used has an adverse effect on the in the intercultural communication in corporate houses. This is in fact a major hindrance in business communication process. Another thing that pertains to culture and has adversely affected international businesses is use of different languages. For any business to prosper and yield maximum profit communication between employees clients and consumer and the business owners must be very effective. For example someone can’t sell goods or services to someone if they don’t understand each other. At the same time they can’t work effectively with the staff when they can’t communicate and come to an understanding (Rodgers 1998).
International businessmen are forced to use their time and money on learning these languages so as to be able to communicate effectively with the counterparts in the other countries. Learning these languages consumes a lot of time that the business man could have used in production of ideas of expanding the business and making it yield more profits. Apart from being time consuming these one may not fully understand the use of the language for example the accent which may lead to distortion of word therefore making communication ineffective. Further more money that could have been invested in advancing the business is used to learn the languages (Jones 2001). These business men may also opt to hire interpreters who complicate thing even more as they may distort information and may not clearly give the explanations. They are also expensive to hire and business men invest also of money in them. The body language varies in different cultures. In international business understanding the language of mannerisms and gestures becomes crucial. There are times when behavior in certain gestures may be misinterpreted by the people from the different culture and this makes intercultural communication in corporate houses very difficult (Sheila 2004).
People from Germany and Britain are keen when it comes to following time bound schedules. There might be clashes due to different time cultures between people of diverse cultures. In the corporate world the way boardroom meetings may be handled could be reasons behind clashes. Where some time cultures stick to time as scheduled other culture don’t stick to the schedules. The marketing executives who represent the international businessmen with international assignments face problems in dealing with different corporate culture from across the world. Thus a skilled coordinator might be required (Scarborough 1998).
Another issue that has been adversely affected by different cultures is team work by staff from different cultures when it comes to international companies which have been set up in foreign countries. The employees may clash on so many issues which for example include time as discussed above. They may also not be able to communicate effectively due to different body languages and gestures that they use. This may result in a misunderstanding and ends up disintegrating them and making it impossible for team work to come into play such organization. Team work is always important when it comes to success in any business. all the above implications all add up to one thing which is different social beliefs and their compatibility with the infrastructures in a society.
Understanding of the quotation
A serious international business man aiming towards success is supposed to handle the different cultures carefully. Some of the countries tend to undermine the cultures of other people since they think that their culture is superior. This is very bad practice that can make global business men loose the many opportunities that come with globalization of the economy. In the international business a good businesses man is one who appreciates the differences in culture in the different societies. A businessman should always be purposeful in the fuel of global business and thus should be aware of want he wants. It very unethical for them to focus on undermining other peoples cultures other than attempting to look for mitigating factor. When working in global commercial environment knowledge of the effects of cultural differences is of the key factors that business men should be armed with. It helps companies to build competencies and also helps individuals to be more sensitive globally. Conflicts arising within international companies may affect team work adversely (Ferraro 2010). For example when the workers are from different countries and thus have different cultural backgrounds misunderstandings happen for example because of language or the mode of dressing. Thus worker in such companies may not work together due to misunderstandings resulting from cultural differences. It may affect the international company adversely if the workers don’t attempt to adapt to the different cultures and so as to enhance interpersonal relations personal growth and intercultural interactions.
There also may be conflicts arising between the international company and other local companies on the basis of cultural differences. Such companies can work together in the market. Beyond soft skills international companies should strive to ensure implementation of the standards and industry best practices. Best practices lessen the clashes that come up as a result of different cultures. The best practices are to some extent more widely accepted. They also help in creation of collective identity. Best practices when dealing with international clients help to lessen the clashes of culture. This works no matter when the clients come from. This is reduced to working with good communication and best practices in the end.
The most important of the measures that the international business men can undertake is to appreciate the different cultures and move on with their business without trying to prove that their culture is the superior one (Daft 2009). For example in the western countries the mode of dressing could be considered as nakedness in the Muslim world. A business man then from the western countries with an intention to successfully undertake business ventures in the Muslim world must be dressed in an appropriate manner that is not irritating during the interactions with the counterparts in the Muslim world. This would be very applicable if it is a lady from the western world where the cultural values allow her to dress in mi skirts and sleeveless tops. It is advisable that such a business lady should take precaution in the manner of dressing if the venture is to be successful.
Contending views on cultural implications of the globalization process
It has been argued that globalization has had great implications on the cultural values. The anti-globalist, view, from the perspective that the best practices have had diverse effect on cultural values whiles the globalist, view from the perspective of economic benefits of globalization. Cultural values have been transformed by immensely by globalization. Social scientist devout their time and also effort to analyze their processes that characterize the international activates today. Some social scientists believe that globalization has produced immense chaos and have destroyed the traditional cultures of different societies (Tucker 2009). These scientists have viewed globalization as economic phenomena which involve enhanced international trade. Scholars who emphasize globalization destructive effects on the culture don’t believe that spring up cultural institutions for promoting organized patterns of social interactions and for maintain stability to have a recreational process that have positive effects for economic development but rather have resulted to enduring conditions of social disorganization and chaos. They also believe that social cultural disorganization and fragmentation has resulted to serious moral and social problems. They argue that the disorganization of culture, the social bonds and established institutions have undermined the self control and the result of that is increase in the incidence of deviant behaviors and crime and therefore requires the states to have increasingly repressive response to the same. Further they contend that the disorganization of culture caused by globalization has created desperation amongst the society losers and as a result there has been an increase in pursuit for hedonistic pleasures such as drug abuse has increased (Hurst 1998).
Globalization has also undermined some of the most cherished institutions such as family and according to anti globalist this is such a great damage. Adult family members are preoccupied with material achievement and work and they don’t have time to meet family obligations and therefore purchase caretakers in the market to meet the needs of their children as well as the elderly family members. This involves the interactions with institution which are market based such as day care centers, nursing homes, private schools whose staff are paid carers, nannies and aides. This is very sad because the cultural values which saw mothers and father watching their children grow into important adults are eroded and thus children lacking such parent contact lack their guidance and may not grow to evaluate their example.
The social scientists also explain that globalization transforming the local cultures gradually and patching them with new and universal practices and values of modernity. This global culture is mostly western in character extols rationalism, individualism secularism and also other values from western nations (Scarborough 1998). As the diffusion and absorption of these values take place in the local societies the world cultures are changing and becoming almost similar. But as the cultures are converging in forming the new world culture it is not at all a sudden process and many features of the traditional culture endure for many years.
The globalist on the other hand argue that the economic benefits of globalization out weight the effect of globalization on culture and further contend that erosion of culture is simply modernization which is good for any society.
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