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Like any other of the national literatures, The American literature was molded by the history of the country itself.
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Introduction
Like any other of the national literatures, The American literature was molded by the history of the country itself. For approximately one hundred and fifty years, America was simply a cluster of colonies spread near the eastern seashore of the continent of North America (Paul 110). A number of colonies, which did not want to be part of the north decided to move towards the western side. After succeeding in rebelling against the motherland, the colonies came together to form the United States of America, an independent nation. The nation continued to expand even more, and by the end of the nineteenth century it had reached the Gulf of Mexico to the south, the 49th parallel to the north, and the pacific to the west (Paul 120). By the end of the same century it had found its place among the most powerful countries in the World. Its wealth attracted interest of other nations, and eventually it involved itself in both world wars. The emergence of science as well as industry, coupled with the change of people’s way of thinking and feelings all contributed to the development of the American Literature. The following is the history of literature in United States of America form the 17th century to the birth of a new nation (Paul 130).
Rise of American Literature in the 17th century
The American literature was initially a colonial literature, it was first written by men of, English origin. The person who initiated the American literature was a soldier, by the name of John Smith who wrote down his thoughts (Paul 160). His renowned books include, A True Relation of … Virginia … (1608). The general History of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624) .Even though these earlier works were mostly on praise of the authors themselves, they were to help other Englishmen get more colonies (Paul 180). With each passing day, more works were authored, every work describing a certain colony. Such work included Daniel Denton’s work in 1670 where he described New York, William Penn’s work in 1682 description of Pennsylvania, and Thomas Ashe’s description of Carolina (Paul 200). These are a few, among many works, which were in praise of America. These authors swore allegiance to the British Government, even though others had a different opinion that motivated the colonists to relocate from their own motherland. More significant, is the issues raised by the writers, questioning the government involvement with the church. The position that most authors felt was no right, was the one taken by Nathaniel Ward in 1647, where he defended the colonists who had sponsored innovative ideas in Massachusetts, in the aftermath more authors published their satisfaction with the position taken by Nathaniel (Paul 230).
Some religious works that were also published include the work of William Bradford that described the history of the Plymouth Plantation, which showed the separation of the pilgrims Separatists from the Anglicans (Paul 250). Other religious work that was published includes Roger William’s work, which was more drastic as it called for the church and the state to go different ways. He also advocated for the church to be given powers and called upon religious tolerance (Paul 270). Some poetry work were published, in 1650 Anne Bradstreet published her work titled in The Tenth Muse. The work consisted mainly, of her feelings about the relationship between religion, and family. Another work was that of Edward Taylor whose work was a reflection of his happiness in the beliefs of Christianity and experience (Paul 300). All works from different authors that was done in the 17th century had the British influence.
The 18th centuryAt the beginning of this century, some writers that included Cotton Mather, continued with the work that had been left by the older generation of writers. Mather’s enormous history of the Puritan in New England, Edwards was another author who tried to continue with the works from the older generation his work, the Great Awakening, the two authors work was on defense of the prehistoric convictions of the puritan’s (Paul 280). Even so the authors were putting up a defense for a hopeless cause. Other writers like John Wise, a minister moved to another less strict belief. Samuel Sewall wrote down some other changes in his diary, despite the fact that he was genuinely religious(Paul 230).. His daily records portrayed how the secular life was taking over from the stiff Puritanism. The other work by Mme Sara Kemble which she describes her journeys to New York, her comments were from a view of an Orthodox believer. But her comments were not as rigid as the ones of the other Pilgrim founders. Down south William Byrd from Virginia differed harshly with the older generation. His major works include Restoration wit(Paul 240). The struggle of the revolution, in America enhanced the division between the political ideas of America, and the British.
The American Revolution struggle was inspired by some of the political writers, even though the colonizers knew that a revolution was on the offing they still proceeded with the war. Of all the political writers the ones that stand out are these two writers, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Paine. Franklin was born in 1706 started to publish his works on a newspaper which was owned by his brother. Franklins experience to write various articles, and reports helped in his compilation of the issues he wrote in connection to the difference of opinion with Britain. Thomas Paine relocated to Philadelphia from Britain he got a job as a editor, approximately 14 months later Paine became the most efficient propaganda peddler in aiding the colonialists. (Paul 300). His other work includes the pamphlet which motivated the colonialists to proclaim independence. The crisis paper of America motivated the Americans to fight through the most difficult years of the war.
The new Nation
After the war, some of the persuasive men were not able to bring people to listen. Both Paine and Samuel could not persuade the people who were interested in making up the new administration. Others succeeded, like Franklin who practiced tolerance in addressing the constitution. However a dissimilar faction of authors became leaders during the new period. Hamilton later became the federal party leader, after writing approximately 51 papers for the federals (Paul 350). In which he persuaded the bestowment of power to the national government as opposed to the state governments. Thomas Jefferson remained an influential writer, both during and after the war (Paul 370). His greatest work was the summary he did on the Declaration of independence. The most outstanding works of the period
During this period, the works that were now recognizable included poetry, which was used as a weapon during the revolution (Paul 390). The most outstanding poet in America during this period is Philip Freneau, whose poems revolved around satires; he later changed his poems to reflect on other areas of the American diverse culture like love, and in that he wrote some romantic poems (Paul 400). Such as on a honey Bee, and To a Caty-did. They formed the important part of poetry in 19th century.
Work Cited
Finkelman, Paul. Encyclopedia of African American history, 1896 to the present: from the age of segregation to the twenty-first century. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. Print.
Interventions that Help Disabled Students Improve their Reading Ability
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Interventions that Help Disabled Students Improve their Reading Ability
A lot of scholars have indicated the importance of reading in academic surroundings. Most of these researchers suggest that reading is a critical avenue of effective learning and the attainment of academic success demands students to be able to read successfully (Scott & Saaiman 1). According to Jamshidifarsani (427), reading impairment can result in a life-long disability that may affect the overall quality of life in a lot of ways. Since reading is very important, diverse reading interventions have been established to help disabled learners master the skill by improving different basic skills that contribute to the complex reading process. These interventions may include phonological awareness, fluency, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and phonics. This research paper aims to explore the interventions that have been proven to be effective in helping disabled students enhance their reading skills.
This research paper aims to answer the following research question
Which reading interventions have proven to be effective in helping students with reading disabilities?
Phonics Interventions
Phonics can be regarded as the different methods that are established to teach students about the orthographic code of a language and the link between sound and spelling patterns (Jamshidifarsani et al. 434). According to Driesen (6), phonics is an essential stepping stone in the process of reading since students can be able to learn the connection between letters and sounds, and the English language is developed using these letters. The authors also add that when instructors are teaching phonics, they are teaching learners how to apply the alphabetical code to read words. Therefore, when students encounter words that they are not aware of, they understand how to apply letter-sound correspondence in the context clues in order to work out the unknown word.
Studies have demonstrated that existing phonics instruction interventions have helped students improve their reading skills. Hill conducted a systematic review to evaluate the impact of phonics-based interventions that aimed to help students with intellectual disabilities improve their reading skills. The findings demonstrated that students with intellectual disabilities were responding to these interventions (Hill 205). These results are consistent with those of a study conducted by Dessemontet to examine the effect of a phonics-based intervention on French students with intellectual disabilities. The study indicated that treatment group students had more progress when it came to phonological awareness and comprehension of letter-sound than the control group.
Reading Comprehension Interventions
Reading comprehension is referred to as the development of the sense of communication that is either spoken or written through a reciprocal and all-inclusive thought exchange between the interpreter and the message in a definite setting of communication (Jamshidifarsani et al. 437). The ultimate aim of attaining different literacy capabilities such as fluency, vocabulary understanding, and others is to comprehend texts effectively and to develop texts in a comprehensible manner. Proficient reading comprehension can be achieved through mastering different skills and any deficiency in one or more of these skills may result in comprehension level impairment.
Most of the existing reading comprehension interventions are strategies that aim to teach learners the strategies that improve their understanding abilities including making inferences, generating and answering questions, and structure identification among others (Jamshidifarsani et al., 437). These reading comprehension interventions have been proven to be effective in helping students enhance their reading skills. Hock et al. (207) in a study to explore the impact of a comprehensive reading program on middle school children found that students with disabilities who received the program performed significantly better in reading standardized measurements when compared to other students. These findings are consistent with those of Reiser who examined the effectiveness of a computer-based intervention on the reading abilities of disabled students. The findings of the study showed that the computer-assisted instruction intervention enhanced the fluency of reading as well as the reading comprehension of students of disabled students (Reiser 152).
Phonological Awareness Interventions
Phonological awareness is the understanding of different ways that an individual can separate oral language into lesser constituents and manipulate it. This simply means having the capability to isolate, identify, merge, segment, erase, add or substitute the sounds of the lesser elements of a language for instance the syllables, phonemes, rime, and words (Jamshidifarsani et al. 433). This awareness has been regarded as the basis of reading effectively which suggests that it is a critical element for students with disabilities in reading (Novianti & Syihabuddin 158).
Research suggests that interventions that aim to improve Phonological awareness are more effective than classroom size strategies. Stressing on one or two phonological awareness capabilities on an intervention result in a higher impact as opposed to concentrating on three or more skills (Jamshidifarsani et al. 433). According to the analysis of these interventions, manipulating phonemes with written letters can lead to better outcomes especially when the intervention is directed toward older students. In a study to examine the effect of phonological instruction on dyslexic students in elementary school, it was noted that this kind of intervention helped students improve their phonological awareness abilities. The findings also indicated improvements in reading as well as spelling skills in the participants (Novianti & Syihabuddin 163).
Vocabulary
Vocabulary is the comprehension of the meaning of words and understanding of how they can be applied to the world. The connection between vocabulary and understanding has existed for a long time with diverse studies conducted over the years indicating that the size of vocabulary early in life is a solid pointer to reading comprehension. Effective instruction strategies that teach vocabularies are direct instruction, instructing morphemic analysis, and the use of multimedia interventions (Jamshidifarsani et al. 437).
Evidence-based studies have documented the impact of vocabulary-based instruction interventions. For example, Solis et al. evaluated the effect of vocabulary and text-based reading programs on students in 4th grade. The results suggested that there were clinical and statistically significant gains in the students’ vocabulary and reading abilities. According to the study, positive results were attained after eight days into the program (Solís et al. 8). emerging technologies such as augmented reality have also been found to be effective in enhancing vocabulary comprehension in students with disabilities. McMahon et al. (1) for instance found that augmented vocabulary helped students with autism spectrum disorders and intellectual disability attain definition and labeling knowledge for new vocabularies in science.
Reading Fluency Interventions
Fluency is considered the ultimate stage that reading instructions aim to attain and it has a mutual link with reading comprehension. Fluency is realized when reading through the ease of identification of words, correct phrasing, intonation, and pacing. Fluency is one of the factors in reading that can support or even limit the reader’s comprehension (Jamshidifarsani et al. 439) several studies have shown that interventions that aim to improve fluency support the reading ability of students. For example, a repetitive reading intervention has been proven to support reading fluency as well as comprehension in students of disabled students (Elhoweris 37). In a systematic review of studies revolving around fluency interventions for disabled students, it was noted that repeated reading still remains the most impactful intervention for enhancing reading fluency in learners with learning disabilities (Stevens, Walker & Vaughn 576).
Multi-component Reading Interventions
Since reading is an ability that is multifaceted, interventions that address all the categories of reading have been proposed (Jamshidifarsani et al. 441). some studies have also evaluated the impact of these interventions. A multi-component literacy program established to improve reading comprehension has been found to improve the ability of students with moderate intellectual disability to respond to multiple-choice and open-ended questions without any help (Roberts et al. 382). Another multi-component intervention focused on storytelling has also been found to enhance vocabulary recognition significantly in students with learning disabilities (Knaak et al. 79).
Conclusion
Overall, the study evaluated the different interventions aiming to help disabled students improve their reading ability. Reading is a multifaceted process that involves crucial categories such as phonics, fluency, comprehension, and others. Different interventions targeting these components have been developed to enhance the ability of disabled students to learn. These interventions focusing on phonics, phonological awareness, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and fluency have been found to be effective in helping disabled students such as those with autism and intellectual disability. Additionally, multi-component interventions that address all these components also exist. They have also proven to be effective in enhancing disabled students’ ability of vocabulary recognition and answering questions. Based on the research, it is evident that reading interventions for disabled students have conventionally focused on single skill instructions/ considering that multi-component interventions seem to improve more than one component of reading, more interventions aiming to help disabled students need to be established. Besides, these interventions are cos-effective when compared to single skill interventions.
Works Cited
Driesen, Erin. “Impact of Phonics Instruction for Readers at Risk.” (2020).
Elhoweris, Hala. “The Impact of Repeated Reading Intervention on Improving Reading Fluency and Comprehension of Emirati Students with Learning Disabilities.” International Journal of Psycho-Educational Sciences 6.2 (2017): 36-48.
Hill, David R. “Phonics Based Reading Interventions for Students with Intellectual Disability: A Systematic Literature Review.” Journal of Education and Training Studies 4.5 (2016): 205-214.
Jamshidifarsani, Hossein, et al. “Technology-based reading intervention programs for elementary grades: An analytical review.” Computers & Education 128 (2019): 427-451.
Knaak, Turid, Matthias Grünke, and Anne Barwasser. “Enhancing Vocabulary Recognition in English Foreign Language Learners with and without Learning Disabilities: Effects of a Multi Component Storytelling Intervention Approach.” Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal 19.1 (2021): 69-85.
McMahon, Don D., et al. “Augmented reality for teaching science vocabulary to postsecondary education students with intellectual disabilities and autism.” Journal of Research on Technology in Education 48.1 (2016): 38-56.
Novianti, Ranti, and Syihabuddin Syihabuddin. “The effect of phonological instruction for struggling readers in elementary.” Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics 11.1: 157-166.
Reiser, David A. An impact analysis of computer assisted instruction on the reading skills of students with disabilities. Diss. Ashland University, 2018.
Roberts, C. A., Tandy, J., Kim, S. Y., & Meyer, N. (2020). A Multi-Component Literacy Intervention with Science Expository Text for Students with Moderate Intellectual Disability. Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities, 55(4), 382-397.
Scott, Linda, and Elaine Saaiman. “Promoting reading skills or wasting time? Students’ perceived benefits of reading in an intermediary programme at the Vaal University of Technology.” Reading & Writing-Journal of the Reading Association of South Africa 7.1 (2016): 1-11.
Solís, Michael, et al. “Text-based vocabulary intervention training study: Supporting fourth graders with low reading comprehension and learning disabilities.” Learning disabilities (Weston, Mass.) 15.1 (2017): 103.
Stevens, Elizabeth A., Melodee A. Walker, and Sharon Vaughn. “The effects of reading fluency interventions on the reading fluency and reading comprehension performance of elementary students with learning disabilities: A synthesis of the research from 2001 to 2014.” Journal of learning disabilities 50.5 (2017): 576-590.
This paper posits to present the life history and the identity formation of Jane, a lady in her late thirties who is diagnose
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Identity
Introduction
This paper posits to present the life history and the identity formation of Jane, a lady in her late thirties who is diagnosed with brain cancer. The results of this interview showed that Jane’s sense of self was seriously influenced by her upbringing experiences. Three central themes surfaced in the interview process: Jane’s esteem for her father, her enthusiasm to share insight, and her occupation as a beautician. Her story reveals that Jane has a brilliant disposition concerning life and, even if she was diagnosed with brain cancer, she does not perceive the condition as life threatening.
How Jane Perceives Herself Today, As a Lady Diagnosed With Brain Cancer. Throughout the interview, I noticed that Jane rarely talked in relation to her diagnosis of brain cancer or the syndrome process itself. Jane perceives herself to be in excellent health, but also as someone who has her personal ups and downs. When I inquired concerning her feelings on the process of gathering her life story, she said:
“I contemplated in relation to that the other day. I thought one way of doing your job is learning how individuals cope with diverse issues in their life. I desire to know how individuals live and do the things that make them cheerful. I get pleasure from talking to people and sharing what a fantastic life I had and still have.”
Jane did not mention any thing more concerning her prognosis, except the occasional remark that “this tiny brain cannot hold everything because from time to time it stops and at times it does not”, meaning that she perceives her memory as vague at times. Nevertheless, the interview process in itself granted me an insight to what Jane’s condition must be like.
Summary of the Interview. Jane never spoke concerning her illness or as an individual diagnosed with the syndrome. Yet, several times in the interview process the condition manifested itself. Often, Jane would reiterate the same stories concerning her childhood. One of Jane’s favorite narratives concerned her goals to become a beautician as well as her father’s indecision to support her line of business. I also noticed that Jane would inquire about me, only to come back to the query a few minutes later. These actions demonstrate the failure of short-range memory, but I suppose her childhood memories are fairly precise. Her stories concerning working in the confectionery shop and entering the beauty school continued as reasonably the same each time she narrated them. From the initial interview session, to the final, her stories remained the same, with the exception of minor deletions or expansions of detail in the narratives. Jane would repeatedly ask me my name and also my future professional plans. It was noticeable that she discerned that I had some relation to the university, but she could not grasp my name. She asked me to jot down my address and name after every interview session. I suppose that Jane wanted some kind of written documentation or explanation that she might use as a reminder, though I may not conclusively confirm this. Jane often asked how I came to know her, and I told her multiple times in each interview about how we worked together during the intergenerational activities.
Jane’s View of the World and Herself. As evident in the majority of literature, persons diagnosed with brain cancer perceive the disease process in different ways. Some individuals talk in relation to their experiences and emotions while others perceive it as their personal problem and are consequently uncomfortable sharing their problems with other people (Heywood 20). This is the case with Jane, because from the time when Jane was a youngster, she was engrained with the attitude: “Do not tell anyone your problems, since they have an adequate amount of their own problems.” Away from the syndrome process, Jane is amazingly optimistic with reference to life. She feels at harmony with herself, since she is contented with the manner in which things turned out in her career and she is happy with her father and the way he cares for her. Jane perceives that she has a fine perspective on life since she has done all that she desired to do.
General Societal Attitudes Surrounding Persons with Brain Cancer. There seems to be a variety of perceived societal attitudes surrounding persons with brain cancer which differ from person to person at diverse stages of life. The question of the psychological condition of the dying has received considerable attention in medical literature. The majority studies have focused on issues surrounding physician aided suicide, and in recent times, the rising awareness of existential and spiritual factors that may contribute to physical, and psychological well-being at the closing stages of life. Although surveys and questionnaires evaluating these factors have been authenticated in diverse palliative populations, they repeatedly fall short of capturing the subjective incidence of dying in the patients. Therefore, patient interviews may provide the superlative opportunity to investigate these sensitive concerns in a way that reveres the diversity of the disease experience (Heywood 26). Such a qualitative diagnostic approach may be employed to capture and understand the dynamic mental state of a dying patient.
Questions surrounding the benefits and costs of a variety of treatment options ought to be conferred in one-on-one consultations in order to acquire insight into the aspects considered significant in the lives of brain cancer patients. The outcomes of a cancer diagnosis are complex and far-reaching, affecting the patient as well as his/her group of caregivers. A number of studies have established the toll that cancer diagnosis bear on families of these patients, and the significance of communication within families as well as between health caregivers and health-care providers. Treatment decisions are often group assessments, made with the fundamental postulation that treatment for one patient may have repercussions for many. The significance of the caregiver’s point of view consequently becomes that much more essential, and to precisely estimate attitudes towards dying and treatment, these require being taken into account. Several studies in the literature consider caregiver perceptions and these have attached significant weight to construal of the decision making process in the terminally sick patients (Gardner 69).
Brain cancer is considered as unique amongst the malignant diseases, in that the organ that is affected is conventionally perceived as the seat of a person’s realistic sense of identity. Philosophical enquiries concerning the manifestation of conduct and the cognizance of a person’s existence all engage the brain. Consequently studying the responses as well as experiences of these patients with a sickness that threatens their survival is practically and conceptually appropriate. Although a small amount of studies have examined brain cancer populations in particular, a number of studies have investigated coping as well as the meaning of infirmity in patients with advanced cancer. For instance, in a number of mixed palliative populations investigated, desperation and yearning for death have been associated to physical distress as well as psychiatric depression. Measures have been devised measuring and assessing meaning and the determination to live, in addition to the yearning to die in these patients, on the other hand, investigators hardly ever, discuss cancer variety as an autonomous variable. Such studies endeavor to estimate attitudes towards fatality, but do not essentially scrutinize what these patients treasure in life (Heywood 32).
Cancer of the brain, although comparatively rare, is most commonly fatal. The overwhelming consequences of the syndrome for patients, caregivers and families, necessitate additional exploration in the sphere of subjective sickness experience as well as therapeutic decision making. It is as a result imperative that investigators as well as clinicians obtain an enhanced understanding of what is valuable and meaningful to persons living with terminal brain cancer.
Reflection on the Importance of Brain Cancer Diagnosis on Society. Caregivers were normally more reflective and forthcoming than patients. There appears to be a relative accord that when judged against other malignant sicknesses, that brain cancer is exceptional. More often than not, the society perceives the brain as a command center, and the center of the factual sense of identity, as well as concentration and memory. Over and above regarding brain cancer as unique, this is usually, but not at all times construed in a negative manner. For instance, the rapidity of the physical and intellectual decline, the absence of any long-lasting and effective treatments, as well as the bleakness of the diagnosis are cited as characteristic negative attributes of the disease. Some peoples, however, mention memory loss, cognitive decline, as well as the relative absence of pain as positive characteristics of the disease that, actually, spare their loved ones of the consciousness of suffering (Gardner 71).
A devastating symptom in one patient, may in reality be a redeeming characteristic for another patient, or offer some psychological or emotional comfort. Most people implicitly understand that maladies of the brain are in essential ways dissimilar than maladies of other organ systems. Often, the sentiment is echoed that every brain cancer is unique, while other cancers are basically alike. If a person has lung cancer, the symptoms are typically similar to the other person who also has lung cancer. One may get rid of a breast and still function, or one can still continue working with one lung. In regard to how brain cancer might be unlike other cancers, some people perceive that it is not merely a diagnosis, but almost like a sentence on every other aspect of life. Although a number of people regard brain cancer as unique (Bee 105).
Caregivers and patients usually regard it as requisite mainly when faced with an incurable illness of the brain, to put emphasis on the significance of mental functioning, cognition and orientation in their definition of value of life. The prospect of loss of memory as well as intellectual decline, in the majority of cases, bear out as the most universal reason that people opt for shortening life through declining further treatment. The emphasis on mental capacity draws attention to the exceptional experiences of patients with brain cancer, even amongst the other uncompromisingly malignant diseases. Families and patients understand that a disease that affects the brain, and essentially the mind, is qualitatively different from diseases that may affect other organs. Caregivers consistently comment that to losing one’s identity, awareness, and memory is tantamount to dying. The loss of vitality and independence in a previously high functioning person would be emotionally and psychologically traumatic (Gardner 75).
It is evident that in society, attitudes in regard to euthanasia vary in consistence with the controversial nature of this problem. However, although caregivers and patients may not be united in regard to the regulation or the means of the practice of euthanasia, there is general concurrence that the decision ought to eventually be the prerogative of the family and the patient.
Quality of life is essential and it would be reasonable that when an individual perceives that they have had enough suffering that opinion ought to be respected (Bee 110).
Works Cited
Bee, T. Lifespan Development, London, Routledge. 2010. Print.
Gardner, S. Extraordinary Minds, Paradigm Publishers, 2009. Print.
Heywood, B. Caring for Helen: An Experience of Effectively Coping with Brain Cancer, London: Thames & Hudson. 2011. Print.