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Intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead
Intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead
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Intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead
Anthropology is a branch of science concerned with the study of humans, human behavior, and societies both in the past and the present. There is cultural anthropology and social anthropology, physical anthropology, and linguistic anthropology. Social and cultural anthropology is concerned with the study of norms and values of society while physical anthropology is concerned with the study of the biological development of humans. Linguistic anthropology on the hand is all about the study of how language influences life CITATION Fra17 l 1033 (Boas, 2017). The sole purpose of anthropology studies is broad the understanding of the various aspects of human life and the experiences of humans both in the past and at present. The person who is involved in the anthropology study is referred to as an anthropologist. Just like any other career, anthropology has a lot of anthropologists worldwide. Franz Boas is the father of modern anthropology and the American anthropology. He is responsible for the scientific methodology in anthropology that was adopted after natural science. He also introduced the idea of viewing the culture of a people as learned behaviors which simplify the scope of anthropology. The purpose of this paper is to discuss the intellectual genealogy of Margaret Mead and her work and contributions to anthropology in general.
Margaret Mead was an American cultural anthropologist. She was famous in the 1960s and 1970s in the mass media for her books and speech CITATION Sha15 l 1033 (Shankman, Mead, Margaret (1901–1978), 2015). She was born on December 16, 1901, in Philadelphia to Edward and Emily Mead but was raised in Pennsylvania. She was the first born in her family. Edward Mead was a professor of finance at Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania while Emily Mead was a sociologist who majors in studying Italian immigrants. She died at the age of 76 on November 15, 1978, in New York. She was married thrice to Luther Cressman from 1923-1928, Reo Fortune from 1928-1935, and Gregory Bateson from 1935-1950. She was blessed with one child, Mary C. Bateson, who was born in 1939.
Her family moves frequently, and her first tutoring was from her grandmother at the age of 11. Her early education was majorly in Buckingham Friends School in Pennsylvania. She was later enrolled to DePauw University in 1919, but a year later she transferred to Barnard College where she graduated in 1923 and transitioned to graduate school of Columbia where she studies with her friend Ruth Benedict and Franz Boas. Both anthropologists, that is, Franz Boas and Ruth Benedict greatly her passion for anthropology. Margaret Mead received her bachelor’s degree in 1924 and a Ph. D in 1929 both from Columbia University.
After clearing from Columbia University, she traveled to the South Seas where she went to gather the material and knowledge to write her first book, Coming of Age in Samoa. The book was first published in 1928. Among the examples, her 23 books include; A Rap on Race of 1971 which she co-wrote with James Baldwin, Balinese Character: A Photographic Analysis of 1942 co-written with Gregory Bateson, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies of 1935, Growing Up in New Guinea of 1930, and Continuities in Cultural Evolution of 1964. From her books, Coming of Age in Samoa, in particular, she comes out clearly with her belief in cultural determinism which was later questioned by some anthropologists by the precision of her observation and sensibility of her conclusions.
Margaret Mead was the first anthropologist to study child-rearing practices and the learning theory in various social groups.
She postulated that children learn through imprinting which is learning by watching the adult behavior and trying to emulate it. Apart from child-rearing, she studied personality and culture. She studied the non-literate people of Oceania which became top of her career. The study involved studying the cultural conditioning of sexual behavior, natural character, and culture change. In 1960, she served as the president of the American Anthropologists Association. During the 1960s, she also served as the president of New York Academy of sciences. Apart from that, she served in various positions in the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Later on, she mentored young anthropologists and sociologists owing to her recognizable academia figure in American. In 1976, she participated in the first UN forum for human settlements and the same year she was inducted to the National Women’s Hall of Fame.
She used morphological theories to study the way people lived. She studied the cooperation and competition patterns in 13 primitive societies, and she was able to document the different behaviors from the societies in question in her book, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies in 1935 CITATION Mar18 l 1033 (Mead, 2018). She observed that masculinity is not necessarily represented by aggressiveness just the way femininity is not necessarily represented through submissiveness and compliance. There is more to personality than just masculinity and femininity and personality can be explained through biology, how people learn, and cultural norms. Culture itself is more relative to personality. She employs the theory of relativism in the way she studies the behavior difference in various cultures. The difference in behavioral patterns among a population is as a result of their culture.
Margaret Mead went to school with anthropologists such as Franz Boas; she connected and kept in touch with other anthropologists throughout her work. She outlined the intellectual lines of descent that connect her to even her parents, her husband and other anthropologists and sociologists such as Ruth Benedict and Franz Boas. Some of her books are co-written with other anthropologists, for instance, A Rap on Race of 1971 which was co-written with James Baldwin and Balinese Character: A Photographic Analysis of 1942 co-written with Gregory Bateson. Mead mentored most of the young and learning anthropologist and sociologists such as Jean Houston.
In 1939, she partnered with her husband Bateson in preparing the Balinese material for publication. Their skills were useful in helping the allied war effort in the United States. Furthermore, they used their skills to help the groups that applied behavioral sciences to issues such as for diminishing or lack of morale during the war. During a meet by the National Research Council’s committee on food habits, mead use anthropology to solve the problem of food preparation and distribution especially in the war zones. She also published a book, And Keep Your Powder Dry, in 1942 as an effort towards tackling the war problems in America.
She applied the anthropological methods in solving almost all the problems that stemmed out during that time. Anthropology was her major basis of analyzing the national character and explaining the behavior that the people in different countries especially those involved in war exhibited. She conducted such research by studying the immigrants during that, for example, the Italian immigrants. In other words, she was studying culture using the small group, that is the immigrants as a sample.
Margaret Mead was a cultural anthropologist who makes her major focus on studying the culture including the norms and values of societies. She was involved in studying culture especially during World War II when she allied with her long life friend Ruth Benedict in studying different cultures from afar through the study of the immigrants. The purpose of the study was to prepare for a postwar world, and the anthropologists sought to understand various cultures especially the warring countries. She continued with the study in which she was the chief leader after the death of her friend. The studies went on even after the war through an initiative chaired by mead called contemporary cultures project.
Her other dwelling was studied on human nature and human behavior CITATION Joh17 l 1033 (Morss, 2017). According to her theory, human behavior is learned. She did a study on rearing children where she pointed out that the learning theory for children is imprinting. A child watches adult behavior and emulates it, and that is exactly how he develops his/her behavior. She carried out the study in Samoa and to back up her theory she published a book Coming of Age in Samoa which has all her research from the adolescent girl from Samoa.
The issue she dealt in is feminism CITATION Pau17 l 1033 (Shankman, The Public Anthropology of Margaret Mead: Redbook, Women’s Issues, and the 1960s, 2017). Through her book, Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies she addresses the male domination and the apparent need for women to be submissive. She illustrates that there should not be specific roles for specific genders. Her study on gender was however criticized as much as it had a feminist base as demeaning towards women.
In conclusion, Margaret mead contributed a lot in the modern anthropology in America in as much as some of her work was criticized. She still was featured in the women’s hall of fame for the remarkable contribution she made to solving problems using anthropology in America.
References
BIBLIOGRAPHY Boas, F. (2017). Anthropology and Modern Life. New York: Routledge.
Mead, M. (2018). Cooperation and Competition Among Primitive Peoples. New York: Routledge.
Morss, J. R. (2017). The Biologizing of Childhood. New York: Routledge.
Shankman, P. (2015, April 15). Mead, Margaret (1901–1978). Retrieved from Wiley Online Library: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118896877.wbiehs294
Shankman, P. (2017). The Public Anthropology of Margaret Mead: Redbook, Women’s Issues, and the 1960s. Current Anthropology.
Integrative Medicine
Integrative Medicine
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Integrative Medicine
Integrative medicine is a combination of conventional medicine that includes drugs, surgeries, and lifestyle medicine and complementary medicine that are therapies that are not part of traditional western medicine. It uses different techniques to deliver whole-person care. Health care policies have not included integrative medicine and most patients are unable to cater for their expenses. There are different ways to improve health care services by including integrative medicine.
CAM stands for complementary and alternative medicine. These are the type of medicine that is not part of conventional western medicine. When they are used together with conventional medicine, it is referred to as complementary and when it is used in place of conventional medicine, it is called alternative. There are different types of CAM medicine and they include traditional alternative medicine, body, diet and herbs, external energy among others. Traditional alternative medicine is a form of therapy such as acupuncture, homeopathy, and oriented practices that have been practiced for so many years worldwide. The second one is the body where touch is used to manipulate the entire body into healing. They include massage, yoga, body movement therapies, and tai chi.
According to Bussing et al. (2010) Integrative health coverage is important because it helps patients with diseases such as cancer, chronic fatigue, persistent pain, and other chronic diseases to deal with their pain and improve the quality of their lives. Many health insurance covers do not cover complementary and alternative medicine that is often used in integrative medicine. It benefits patients who have long-term care settings and special medical services such as rehab. It is important for health insurance companies to make health coverage available for patients that suffer from these kinds of diseases. This will reduce health care costs and enable them access to better medical services.
The first healthcare improvement is educating physicians on the importance of complementary and alternative medicine in medical schools Wetzel et al. (1998). This gives them an idea when they practice medicine on what method they should use while treating patients. Integrative medicine will complement or be an alternative to western medicine. It makes it easy for them to study the feelings of a patient and determine the best medicine instead of assuming how they feel. Another improvement that can be made through healthcare policy, Maizes et al. (2009) is to allow health insurances to cover integrative health patients. It will allow them to access medical attention without the worry of finance. Patients who suffer from diseases like cancer and Parkinson’s have something that can take their pain away.
Medicare health program has come up with an alternative and complementary cover. Many people are now using alternative therapies such as massage and acupuncture in our societies. It has made it easy for patients to access alternative medicine. Services that you get can range from massage to yoga. However, alternative medicine has a very broad field that varies with the plan that you decide to choose. There are different plans for the insurance and one is at will to choose from the one that suits them better. What works for one person may not for another.
Until medicine accepts complementary and alternative medicine completely, patients will not be in a place to get enough medical attention that aims at treating the entire body including a healthy diet, mental health, and exercise. Our society is growing and more people are looking for alternative medicine from the western ones. Our government needs to pay attention to complementary and alternative medicine and ensure that different health insurances cover alternative medicine.
Reference
Büssing, A., Ostermann, T., Neugebauer, E. A., & Heusser, P. (2010). Adaptive coping strategies in patients with chronic pain conditions and their interpretation of disease. BMC public health, 10(1), 1-10.
Maizes, V., Rakel, D., & Niemiec, C. (2009). Integrative medicine and patient-centered care. Explore, 5(5), 277-289.
Wetzel, M. S., Eisenberg, D. M., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (1998). Courses involving complementary and alternative medicine at US medical schools. Jama, 280(9), 784-787.
Integrative Literature Review
Integrative Literature Review
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Introduction
Nurses are typically at the healthcare delivery system’s forefront and have been announced to show a significant level of burnout. Job burnout is a huge challenge in social professions, particularly in healthcare globally. Job burnout refers to a mental, physical, and emotional exhaustion state that is brought about by long-time demands mismatch associated with the worker’s resources and the job. According to Dyerbye et al. (2017), about half of the entire nursing workforce is having job burnout with the possibility of possible risk to patients, job dysfunction, and personal consequence. Job burnout is frequently connected to nurses’ intention to quit their profession because it is characterized by three classic symptoms, which include reduced personal accomplishment, cynicism (depersonalization), and exhaustion (Kelly et al., 2020). The burnout nurses may get exhausted while trying their best to ensure caring for various patients with minimal chances of recovery. Also, nurses with job burnout may show depersonalization in various uncharacteristic negative behaviors, incivility towards co-workers, and poor communication with different co-workers.
Nurses experience poor self-esteem that is job-related and lacks motivation when they have job burnout. They also feel that they are underperforming in their various job responsibilities. Thus, they may experience a lack of contentment and reduced personal accomplishment concerning job-related stressors like burnout and, in the end, leave their position. The nurses leaving their job not only disrupts patient care but is connected to high financial costs. However, it is difficult to adequately establish how nurses with job burnout compared to those without job burnout affect medical care than retaining their positions. Therefore, this literature review concerning the effect of medical care over hospital stay by nurses experiencing job burnout compared to those without job burnout will attempt to close the present gaps in knowledge.
Research Question
In patients, how do nurses who are suffering from job burnout compared to nurses not suffering from job burnout affect the medical care over the hospital stay?
Literature Review
Job burnout is an essential under-studied facet of nursing. In nursing, it is a threat to U.S. healthcare and health. Workload has been a significant cause of the frightening increase in burnout in nursing. Alleviating burnout factors is a complicated issue that requires strategies to support the efforts. As job burnout for nurses continues to increase, how it impacts medical care than hospital stay compared to lack of job burnout offers a compelling ground for carrying out this particular line of research. Thus, this literature review is aimed at establishing the nurses’ job burnout effect on medical care than hospital stay compared to nurses without job burnout.
Summary and Appraisals of Selected Literature
Munnangi et al. (2018) conducted a cross-sectional survey investigating various principal factors, including job satisfaction, perceived stress, burnout, and professional and personal demographics. Munnangi et al.’s (2018) study provide that stress and burnout in safety-net hospitals for trauma nurses can impact patient care negatively. Munnangi et al.’s (2018) study found that the emotional exhaustion extent experiences by various nurses differed with the job location. It was huge in nurses of the surgical care intensive care unit. Also, the study revealed there is a significant relationship between job satisfaction, burnout, and stress which are all impacted by the work environment.
Mohamed (2019) utilized a mixed-methods design to compare second-career and first-career nurses’ experiences of burnout, presenteeism, and stress in the transition to practice. Mohamed’s (2019) study revealed burnout prevalence, explaining nursing roles where it can result in staff shortage due to resignation and infective quality delivery. In addition, there were possible burnout consequences for all participants, which depended on their own health, patient care, and unit culture.
Afriyie (2020) utilized a self-reported questionnaire and cross-sectional design to evaluate emotional labor’s influence on burnout syndrome. Afriyie (2020) provides that burnout syndrome impacts nurses’ quality of care offered to patients, job satisfaction, performance, and quality of care. Thus, emotional resilience should be increased to lower burnout in nurses.
Kelly et al. (2020) conducted a nonexperimental study to establish the relationship between position and organization turnover and burnout. Kelly et al.’s (2020) study showed that 54 percent of nurses suffered from moderate burnout, and emotional exhaustion increased by 10 percent. Kelly et al. (2020) and Shah et al. (2021) revealed a significant burnout impact on organizational turnover, where there is an increase in nurses leaving their job due to an increase in emotional exhaustion.
Diehl et al. (2021) offer the closest example in the present literature to the current proposed research study for undertaking this literature review. Diehl et al. (2021) applied a cross-sectional survey to investigate the moderating resource’s role in the connection between burnout and workload among nurses. Diehl et al.’s (2021) study revealed that nurses who described recognition from the supervisor, a better working team, and workplace commitment portrayed a weaker relationship between burnout and quantitative demands than nurses who did not. Typically, nurses spend 20 percent of their job time in palliative care. Thus, Diehl et al. (2021) associate spending more time than this with burnout.
Mudallal et al. (2018) provide a comparative example in the present literature to the current proposed research study for undertaking this literature review. Mudallal et al. (2018) utilized correlational and cross-sectional designs to investigate the burnout level among Jordanian nurses. Also, the study aimed to assess the leader empowering behaviors to influence nurses’ burnout feelings in an urge to better nursing work results. Mudallal et al.’s (2018) study found that Jordanian nurses show high burnout levels due to their high scores for depersonalization and emotional exhaustion. Personal accomplishment demonstrated moderate scores. Also, Mudallal et al. (2018) provided a significant correlation between factors connected to nurses’ demographic traits and work conditions with burnout categories. In addition, Mudallal et al. (2018) describe the importance of nurse leaders’ role in bettering work conditions and motivating and empowering nurses to lower their burnout feeling, better nursing care quality, and reduce turnover rates.
Torrente et al.’s (2021) study provide a close example in the present literature to the current proposed research study for undertaking this literature review. Torrente et al. (2021) conducted an online survey-based and cross-sectional study to investigate the burnout syndrome prevalence in healthcare workers who worked in Spain on the front line during the coronavirus. Eligibility for the study concentrated on Spanish healthcare workers in the usual ward or front line. Torrente et al.’s (2021) study revealed that women healthcare workers felt more significant burnout than men and were considerably afraid of the quality of care offered to the various patients, their performance, and self-infection. Also, being a woman below 30 years and a nurse was connected to a high burnout syndrome risk. Thus, Torrente et al.’s (2021) study reported high burnout syndrome rates and proposed immediate implementation of interventions to ensure mental health for healthcare workers affected by the coronavirus.
Gaps in the Selected Literature
Little to no research exists comparing the impact of medical care over hospital stay by nurses experiencing job burnout compared to those without job burnout. The moderate research present involves the impact of job burnout on hospital stay (turnover), quality care, and patient care (Munnangi et al., 2018; Mohamed, 2019; Afriyie, 2020; Mudallal et al., 2018). Therefore, a gap exists concerning the impact of nurses without job burnout on medical care than hospital stays as only Diehl et al.’s (2021) study attempts to provide the connection, although relating to burnout syndrome in healthcare workers rather than specifically to nurses.
Moreover, a significant gap exists where many of the studies were limited in scope and utilized small samples; this made it difficult to deduce general conclusions for the wider population. For example, Torrente et al. (2021) had most participants obtained from the Madrid Community, which limited the generalization of the presented findings. Also, Mudallal et al. (2018) utilized smaller and less representative samples for every analyzed variable, thus lowering the findings’ generalizability.
Conclusion
The research carried out by Munnangi et al. (2018), Mohamed (2019), Afriyie (2020), and Mudallal et al. (2018) all offer evidence that job burnout in nurses, impact turnover rate, quality care, and patient care. Torrente et al. (2021) further revealed that women healthcare workers felt more significant burnout than men and were considerably afraid of the quality of care offered to the various patients, their performance, and their self-infection. Diehl et al. (2021) provide that nurses who described recognition from the supervisor, a better working team, and workplace commitment portrayed a weaker relationship between burnout and quantitative demands than nurses who did not. In addition, Mudallal et al. (2018) describe the importance of nurse leaders’ role in bettering work conditions and motivating and empowering nurses to lower their burnout feeling, better nursing care quality, and reduce turnover rates. Thus, this research attempts to start the process of closing the huge gap in the present literature. Therefore, with job burnout still being a significant issue for nurses, this proposed research will provide its impact and the need for interventions to improve medical care and reduce turnover rates.
References
Afriyie, D. (2020). Reducing work-related stress to minimise emotional labour and burn-out syndrome in nurses. Evidence Based Nursing, ebnurs-2020-103321. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2020-103321
Diehl, E., Rieger, S., Letzel, S., Schablon, A., Nienhaus, A., Escobar Pinzon, L. C., & Dietz, P. (2021). The relationship between workload and burnout among nurses: The buffering role of personal, social and organisational resources. PLOS ONE, 16(1), e0245798. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245798
Dyrbye, L. N., Shanafelt, T. D., Sinsky, C. A., Cipriano, P. F., Bhatt, J., Ommaya, A., West, C. P., & Meyers, D. (2017). Burnout Among Health Care Professionals: A Call to Explore and Address This Underrecognized Threat to Safe, High-Quality Care. NAM Perspectives, 7(7). https://doi.org/10.31478/201707b
Kelly, L. A., Gee, P. M., & Butler, R. J. (2020). Impact of nurse burnout on organizational and position turnover. Nursing Outlook, 69(1), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2020.06.008
Mohamed, L. K. (2019). First-career and second-career nurses’ experiences of stress, presenteeism and burn-out during transition to practice. Evidence Based Nursing, 22(3), 85–85. https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2019-103069
Mudallal, R. H., Othman, W. M., & Al Hassan, N. F. (2018). Nurses’ Burnout: The Influence of Leader Empowering Behaviors, Work Conditions, and Demographic Traits. INQUIRY: The Journal of Health Care Organization, Provision, and Financing, 54(1), 004695801772494. https://doi.org/10.1177/0046958017724944
Munnangi, S., Dupiton, L., Boutin, A., & Angus, L. D. G. (2018). Burnout, Perceived Stress, and Job Satisfaction Among Trauma Nurses at a Level I Safety-Net Trauma Center. Journal of Trauma Nursing, 25(1), 4–13. https://doi.org/10.1097/jtn.0000000000000335
Shah, M. K., Gandrakota, N., Cimiotti, J. P., Ghose, N., Moore, M., & Ali, M. K. (2021). Prevalence of and Factors Associated With Nurse Burnout in the US. JAMA Network Open, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.36469
Torrente, M., Sousa, P. A., Sánchez-Ramos, A., Pimentao, J., Royuela, A., Franco, F., Collazo-Lorduy, A., Menasalvas, E., & Provencio, M. (2021). To burn-out or not to burn-out: a cross-sectional study in healthcare professionals in Spain during COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open, 11(2), e044945. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-044945