Recent orders
Rose City Council 1
August 14, 2022
Xu ChunyuRose City Council 1
Government Centre
Mr. Stanley Evans
65 Karaka St.
Hyde Square, Rose City 0202
Dear Mr. Evans,
Thank you for your letter alerting us of the environmental issue you identified and for your past efforts to ensure our beautiful city remains that way. I apologize you and other environmentalist warriors have been subjected to frustrating efforts and a series of events. As a council, we pride ourselves on being conscious of our environment, therefore what you identified as a problem will be dealt with.
Upon a review of your claims, I found several issues that led to the conditions you brought up. The most serious is obviously the recognition of a need to expand our roads to international standards while retaining the integrity of our environment. You can be assured that the issue is being taken with the seriousness it deserves and your concerns are shared in our board.
I am happy to inform you that the council came up with a plan to still expand the roads while leaving the precious rata trees, because it is possible to achieve both Raroa Avenue expansion and the preservation of the trees. On that regard, the Rose City Council thanks you sincerely for helping to not only conserve our environment, but also to improve our services.
I appreciate you taking your time to remind the council of the community’s commitment to environmental conservation, an issue we share and pride ourselves of being champions towards. We strive to provide excellent service to our constituents. Please let us know if you have additional questions, comments, or concerns regarding the issue.
Thank you so much for your time.
Sincerely,
Xu Chunyu,
Communications Advisor
Towards the Police (2)
Attitudes of HBCU Students Towards the Police
Ashlynn Ureste
Florida Memorial University
Senior Project
2/20/2022
Introduction
The study aims to investigate the attitudes towards the police among Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) Students. Specifically, this research will assess perceptions of law enforcement from the perspective of HBCU students utilizing a questionnaire and quantitative analysis. Additionally, this study will investigate how the media influences these attitudes and how these attitudes and perceptions influence the police interaction with HBCU students. It is conjectured that the HBCU student population has unique attitudes and perceptions towards the police, which are a function of various factors, including fear of victimization, Police misconduct and the media. These attitudes lead to straining the quality of interaction between the police and students.
This section reviews research that aimed to address HBCU students’ perceptions of police by anchoring them in proven ideas. This section begins by analyzing numerous hypotheses crucial to understanding some other researchers’ results. Because most of the attitudes are characterized by racial identities, the theory addressed is the social labeling theory and its key tenets of how labeling reinforces the behavior, strains, relationships, leading to the confirmation of the social labels ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”042949811X”,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Short”,”given”:”James F”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”publisher”:”Routledge”,”title”:”Poverty, ethnicity, and violent crime”,”type”:”book”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=5c7d8c54-a207-4715-9932-8df2aa06fe58”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2153-3687″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Rocque”,”given”:”Michael”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Race and justice”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2011″]]},”page”:”292-315″,”publisher”:”SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA”,”title”:”Racial disparities in the criminal justice system and perceptions of legitimacy: A theoretical linkage”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”1″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=b2724f60-61a7-414a-b0a1-3d95548ea14b”]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Rocque, 2011; Short, 2018)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Rocque, 2011; Short, 2018)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Rocque, 2011; Short, 2018)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Rocque, 2011; Short, 2018). Socially labeling is discussed from two perspectives. The first perspective pertains to the history of the HBCU institutions being designed to give African Americans equal opportunities to higher education and the role of HBCU institutions to the identity of the progress of African AmericansADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1537-7938″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Webb”,”given”:”Patrick”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Frame”,”given”:”Kimberly”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Marshall”,”given”:”Pam”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of ethnicity in criminal justice”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”page”:”137-155″,”publisher”:”Taylor & Francis”,”title”:”Correlates of campus crime: An exploration of minority attitudes at an HBCU”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”16″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7d3cacc1-c500-4963-9f43-46307a72a8c7”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1082-8354″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Murty”,”given”:”Komanduri S”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Roebuck”,”given”:”Julian B”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Race, Gender & Class”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”3-4″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2015″]]},”page”:”136-153″,”publisher”:”JSTOR”,”title”:”African American HBCU students’ attitudes and actions toward interracial dating & marriage: A survey analysis”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”22″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d717ecf4-5cc4-4c74-b996-4d5275e67092″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Webb et al., 2018)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Webb et al., 2018)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Webb et al., 2018)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Webb et al., 2018). Regarding the criminal justice system, the African American population has been overrepresented, which has led to the criminal justice system labeling African Americans as more likely to commit crimes. However, various incidents highlighting the interaction between law enforcement have depicted law enforcement officers as racially biased against African AmericansADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1043-9862″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Cochran”,”given”:”Joshua C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Warren”,”given”:”Patricia Y”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of contemporary criminal justice”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2012″]]},”page”:”206-227″,”publisher”:”Sage Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA”,”title”:”Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in perceptions of the police: The salience of officer race within the context of racial profiling”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”28″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ebb97614-ed41-49c8-8669-8c750cd7210a”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Lewis”,”given”:”Lisa Marie”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2016″]]},”title”:”Attitudes Toward Police among College Students: Differences among Race, Social Work Status, and University History”,”type”:”article-journal”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=68b816ab-8496-4e27-80b5-a51d9d52c4c1″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016). For example, black individuals may be arrested more often because they are more likely to be living in poverty, which may explain why they are more likely to be arrested. Therefore, the social labeling theory is discussed from law enforcement and the African American HBCU students’ perspectives.
It will next seek to examine and incorporate research that sought to determine the prevalent opinions of HBCU students towards the police. Because perceptions impact student-police encounters, a brief discussion of police viewpoints will be conducted (Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017; Posick et al., 2013). The origins of the prevalent views will also be addressed. This will help explore how attitudes have evolved and continue to change.
The media’s influence in shaping impressions is discussed next. The emphasis will be on how the media portrays Police-African American relations. They consider it as their obligation to reject injustices starting with racial discrimination since it is the most directly impacts the history and identity of HBCU institutions. The part will examine how media coverage of police violence leads to internalization of police prejudice against African Americans and bad opinions of policing (Davies et al., 2017). The literature review will end with how unfavorable police attitudes reinforce one other. When HBCU students regard law enforcement authorities as racist, they are less likely to comply. This will lead to confrontations between police and students during campus protests and rallies. These hostile exchanges might lead to violence, which reinforces unfavorable impressions. Because such incidents may be quickly posted on social media, it promotes bad impressions of police to other HBCUs.
Literature Review
Social Labelling Theory
Social labeling refers to how different groups of people attach different labels to different types of people based on whether they are perceived as acceptable or unacceptable ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1315864258″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Lynch”,”given”:”Michael J”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Race, Gender, and Class in Criminology the Intersections”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2019″]]},”page”:”3-28″,”publisher”:”Routledge”,”title”:”Class, Race, Gender and Criminology: Structured Choices and the Life Course.”,”type”:”chapter”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=551438eb-f752-458e-acb2-557bbafa4d82″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Lynch, 2019)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Lynch, 2019)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Lynch, 2019)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Lynch, 2019).
Social labeling theory can be applied to several different aspects of life. It is applied in the different types of research conducted, including intergroup relations, social cognition, and intercultural communication. One area of research that the social labeling theory applies to is a student’s perspective of law enforcementADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1572-8315″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Rosenbaum”,”given”:”Dennis P”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Lawrence”,”given”:”Daniel S”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hartnett”,”given”:”Susan M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McDevitt”,”given”:”Jack”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Posick”,”given”:”Chad”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Experimental Criminology”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2015″]]},”page”:”335-366″,”publisher”:”Springer”,”title”:”Measuring procedural justice and legitimacy at the local level: the police–community interaction survey”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”11″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3ed10a08-d43d-49e5-b025-543b6a2c71a7”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1043-9862″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Cochran”,”given”:”Joshua C”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Warren”,”given”:”Patricia Y”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of contemporary criminal justice”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2012″]]},”page”:”206-227″,”publisher”:”Sage Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA”,”title”:”Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in perceptions of the police: The salience of officer race within the context of racial profiling”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”28″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=ebb97614-ed41-49c8-8669-8c750cd7210a”]},{“id”:”ITEM-3″,”itemData”:{“author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Lewis”,”given”:”Lisa Marie”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2016″]]},”title”:”Attitudes Toward Police among College Students: Differences among Race, Social Work Status, and University History”,”type”:”article-journal”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=68b816ab-8496-4e27-80b5-a51d9d52c4c1″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016; Rosenbaum et al., 2015)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016; Rosenbaum et al., 2015)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016; Rosenbaum et al., 2015)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Cochran & Warren, 2012; Lisa Marie Lewis, 2016; Rosenbaum et al., 2015). This perspective begins with the idea that being African American will place some African Americans in a disadvantageous position when dealing with law enforcement officers. This disadvantage can come from discrimination by the police based on race discrimination or from interactions with police officers where students may feel uncomfortable due to negative beliefs within society. This is with regard to Unjustified labels that police put on people and subsequently spread to others in the same community who have not had direct contact with law enforcement are included in this category.
Social labeling theory has been applied to African American HBCU (Historically Black Colleges and Universities) students in their interactions with law enforcement and the police. The theory states that different racial groups develop differential identifications with different social labels, such as “criminal. African Americans are usually more likely to be socially labeled as criminals by law enforcement agencies than Whites ADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1392244838″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Harris-Wyatt”,”given”:”Georgetta A”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2019″]]},”publisher”:”Tennessee State University”,”title”:”An Analysis of Factors that Impact Civilian Attitudes Toward Police Treatment of Minority Males”,”type”:”article”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=04037b4e-fef5-41a5-912f-53cb8c316a3a”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1572-8315″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Rosenbaum”,”given”:”Dennis P”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Lawrence”,”given”:”Daniel S”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Hartnett”,”given”:”Susan M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McDevitt”,”given”:”Jack”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Posick”,”given”:”Chad”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Experimental Criminology”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2015″]]},”page”:”335-366″,”publisher”:”Springer”,”title”:”Measuring procedural justice and legitimacy at the local level: the police–community interaction survey”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”11″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=3ed10a08-d43d-49e5-b025-543b6a2c71a7″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Rosenbaum et al., 2015)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Rosenbaum et al., 2015)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Rosenbaum et al., 2015)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Rosenbaum et al., 2015). Blacks and Whites differ in their use of social labeling to create differential identifications with what is labeled as good or bad. Whites used social labeling more often to assign positive labels, whereas Blacks used it more frequently to assign negative labels. African American students use higher levels of social labeling than White students, and that these differences exist throughout the lifecycle of their academic experiences at college (Riddle & Sinclair, 2019). This can be attributed to where they are coming from and what they have been going through. As a result of their hardships, they view the whites to be more privileged than them.
Other studies show that blacks are more likely than whites to have positive attitudes toward law enforcement officers with dark-skinned faces (Bowman, 2020). This shows the effect of reciprocity and social identity. Whereas law enforcement officers sometimes victimize African Americans because of their skin color, they may have general negative perceptions about the law enforcement while having more favorable perceptions to African American law enforcement officersADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1082-8354″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Murty”,”given”:”Komanduri S”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Roebuck”,”given”:”Julian B”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Race, Gender & Class”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”3-4″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2015″]]},”page”:”136-153″,”publisher”:”JSTOR”,”title”:”African American HBCU students’ attitudes and actions toward interracial dating & marriage: A survey analysis”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”22″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d717ecf4-5cc4-4c74-b996-4d5275e67092″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Murty & Roebuck, 2015). On the other hand, African American law enforcement officers are perceived as less likely to discriminate against black students than light-skinned officers. The positive perceptions among African American students about these officers may result from the fact that they are viewed as having a more personal relationship with the students.
Perceptions Between Police and HBCU students
In a country where the Black population is a mere 13 percent, over 50 percent of all police killings in 2019 have been committed against black people (Bialik, 2021). For a greater context, it should be understood that as of 2019, African Americans made up 54.9 percent of all murder perpetrators, whites made up 41.1 per cent, and “Other” made up 3.0 percent of instances where the race was known. 54.7 percent of murder victims in 2019 were black or African-American, 42.3% were white, and 3.1 percent were of other races (Expanded Homicide, 2019) This staggering statistic highlights how Black Americans, both on and off-campus, are subjected to arbitrary violence at rates disproportionate to their representation in society. Furthermore, according to a 2018 study from the Higher Education Research Institute at UCLA, HBCU students are more likely to feel unsafe on campus than other universitiesADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2153-3687″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Posick”,”given”:”Chad”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Rocque”,”given”:”Michael”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McDevitt”,”given”:”Jack”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Race and Justice”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2013″]]},”page”:”190-209″,”publisher”:”SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA”,”title”:”One scale fits all? Assessing racial differences in the measurement of attitudes toward the police”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”3″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=39c3cdd3-d84c-44a3-bf55-a794dbaad57a”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0888-6601″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Lewis”,”given”:”Lisa M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Wilks”,”given”:”Scott E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Geiger”,”given”:”Jennifer R”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barthelemy”,”given”:”Juan J”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Livermore”,”given”:”Michelle M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Pan African Studies”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2017″]]},”title”:”A Racial Divide: College Student Attitudes Concerning Police in South Louisiana.”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”10″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=09d5aecb-4373-47fd-a014-452c3fe5fcd2”]},{“id”:”ITEM-3″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0734-0168″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Gabbidon”,”given”:”Shaun L”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Higgins”,”given”:”George E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Potter”,”given”:”Hillary”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Criminal justice review”,”id”:”ITEM-3″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2011″]]},”page”:”5-21″,”publisher”:”SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA”,”title”:”Race, gender, and the perception of recently experiencing unfair treatment by the police: Exploratory results from an all-black sample”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”36″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=be923f59-a9e5-4d1a-8fcb-2dccda5efcc5″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017; Posick et al., 2013)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017; Posick et al., 2013)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017; Posick et al., 2013)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017; Posick et al., 2013). This fear can be linked to several factors: incarceration rates among Black teenagers have increased by 44% since 1990, while white incarcerations have only increased by 3%. In addition, according to a report by the Bureau of Justice Statistics, Black students are more likely to be arrested on campus. Finally, the mere presence of police on campus can cause an environment of fear and self-preservation among studentsADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1537-7938″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Webb”,”given”:”Patrick”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Frame”,”given”:”Kimberly”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Marshall”,”given”:”Pam”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of ethnicity in criminal justice”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”page”:”137-155″,”publisher”:”Taylor & Francis”,”title”:”Correlates of campus crime: An exploration of minority attitudes at an HBCU”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”16″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7d3cacc1-c500-4963-9f43-46307a72a8c7″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Webb et al., 2018)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Webb et al., 2018)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Webb et al., 2018)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Webb et al., 2018). If a student feels threatened by a police officer’s presence, there is no doubt that they will alter their behavior in some way for fear of being harmed or unjustifiably arrested.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, 102 Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) in the United States. Many of these schools were founded during segregation to offer education opportunities to African Americans who had been previously denied access to higher learning institutions. These colleges still retain many of their original values, including strong support for diversity and multiculturalism. HBCUs experience a very different college life than non-HBCU’s, which is heavily affected by their race/ethnicityADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”1392244838″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Harris-Wyatt”,”given”:”Georgetta A”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2019″]]},”publisher”:”Tennessee State University”,”title”:”An Analysis of Factors that Impact Civilian Attitudes Toward Police Treatment of Minority Males”,”type”:”article”},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=04037b4e-fef5-41a5-912f-53cb8c316a3a”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0888-6601″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Lewis”,”given”:”Lisa M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Wilks”,”given”:”Scott E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Geiger”,”given”:”Jennifer R”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Barthelemy”,”given”:”Juan J”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Livermore”,”given”:”Michelle M”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of Pan African Studies”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2017″]]},”title”:”A Racial Divide: College Student Attitudes Concerning Police in South Louisiana.”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”10″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=09d5aecb-4373-47fd-a014-452c3fe5fcd2”]},{“id”:”ITEM-3″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”0734-0168″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Gabbidon”,”given”:”Shaun L”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Higgins”,”given”:”George E”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Potter”,”given”:”Hillary”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Criminal justice review”,”id”:”ITEM-3″,”issue”:”1″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2011″]]},”page”:”5-21″,”publisher”:”SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA”,”title”:”Race, gender, and the perception of recently experiencing unfair treatment by the police: Exploratory results from an all-black sample”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”36″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=be923f59-a9e5-4d1a-8fcb-2dccda5efcc5″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Gabbidon et al., 2011; Harris-Wyatt, 2019; Lisa M Lewis et al., 2017). A large body of research supports this notion. Due to the heavy racial segregation that HBCUs experienced, they are likely to attract students more concerned with race relations.
Another aspect of research surrounding the HBCU student body is that of crime and perceptions of criminality. According to a 2016’s study by Columbia University’s National Opinion Research Center (NORC), even though there is little evidence suggesting racial bias in college campus crime, Black students perceived police treatment as biased against themADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”2153-3687″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Posick”,”given”:”Chad”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Rocque”,”given”:”Michael”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”McDevitt”,”given”:”Jack”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Race and Justice”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”3″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2013″]]},”page”:”190-209″,”publisher”:”SAGE Publications Sage CA: Los Angeles, CA”,”title”:”One scale fits all? Assessing racial differences in the measurement of attitudes toward the police”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”3″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=39c3cdd3-d84c-44a3-bf55-a794dbaad57a”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1082-8354″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Murty”,”given”:”Komanduri S”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Roebuck”,”given”:”Julian B”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Race, Gender & Class”,”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issue”:”3-4″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2015″]]},”page”:”136-153″,”publisher”:”JSTOR”,”title”:”African American HBCU students’ attitudes and actions toward interracial dating & marriage: A survey analysis”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”22″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=d717ecf4-5cc4-4c74-b996-4d5275e67092″]}],”mendeley”:{“formattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Posick et al., 2013)”,”plainTextFormattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Posick et al., 2013)”,”previouslyFormattedCitation”:”(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Posick et al., 2013)”},”properties”:{“noteIndex”:0},”schema”:”https://github.com/citation-style-language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json”}(Murty & Roebuck, 2015; Posick et al., 2013). In addition, that same study reported that Blacks and Whites differ in their perceptions towards criminal behavior: Black people were more likely than white people to think the majority of crime victims were black and less likely than whites to think most members of society viewed blacks favorably.
The Role of Media in Influencing HBCU students’ perceptions of police
The past decade has seen numerous protests and demonstrations by HBCU students on issues of racial discrimination. These protests and demonstrations have a constitutional grounding based on freedoms of speech, assembly, and government petitioning. However, some of these pretests are accompanied by violence which necessitates the involvement of law enforcement. In most cases, the involvement of the police only serves to heighten tensions since the law enforcement institutions have negative connotations of being biased against African AmericansADDIN CSL_CITATION {“citationItems”:[{“id”:”ITEM-1″,”itemData”:{“ISSN”:”1537-7938″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Webb”,”given”:”Patrick”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Frame”,”given”:”Kimberly”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””},{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Marshall”,”given”:”Pam”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”container-title”:”Journal of ethnicity in criminal justice”,”id”:”ITEM-1″,”issue”:”2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2018″]]},”page”:”137-155″,”publisher”:”Taylor & Francis”,”title”:”Correlates of campus crime: An exploration of minority attitudes at an HBCU”,”type”:”article-journal”,”volume”:”16″},”uris”:[“http://www.mendeley.com/documents/?uuid=7d3cacc1-c500-4963-9f43-46307a72a8c7”]},{“id”:”ITEM-2″,”itemData”:{“ISBN”:”9798662447943″,”author”:[{“dropping-particle”:””,”family”:”Robinson”,”given”:”Corey D”,”non-dropping-particle”:””,”parse-names”:false,”suffix”:””}],”id”:”ITEM-2″,”issued”:{“date-parts”:[[“2020”]]},”publi
Literature Review of industry life cycle
At Literature Review of industry life cycle
The concept of industry life cycle is one that relates to the various stages that an industry moves through right from initial product entry, up to its eventual decline. Typically, there are five stages or phases in the industry lifecycle. Gort and Klepper (1982) originally identified these five stages. These five stages include early stage, innovation phase, shakeout or cost phase, maturity phase and finally decline phase. The work of Klepper (1997) explored the concept of industry life cycles. His work reviewed a series of evidence on the entry, exit, corporate survival, and product innovation and organization structure in new and emerging industries in order to assess if these industries go through the regular business cycles as they progress towards old age. His work acted as a clear depiction of what happens in the evolution of modern age industries and product life cycle is what is used in elucidating this evidence. Yoo (2000) explored the theory of Industry Life Cycle by deriving an equilibrium timing of both entries and exits, coupled with the equilibrium output levels spanning the entire industry life cycle period. His work also examined the effects of rise in entry costs. By means of an extended model having three entrants, his work indicated that the very fist entry might effectively be delayed with the third firm and that the less efficient company may be used as the first entrant in certain exceptional cases. Maksimovic and Phillips (2008) examined industry life cycle about acquisition and investment. Their main work was however aimed at finding out if really, the firm organization matters in this process.
The work of Volpato and Stocchetti (2008) explored the management of product life cycle in the auto manufacture industry. They did this by evaluating the effectiveness of the carmakers using the product life-cycle model. Their work discovered certain interesting results about product life cycle. The first one is that new product development process must be timed appropriately by planning with regard to several generation of a product that are to be developed on a similar platform as opposed to basing it on the next generation model only. Transition management from the marketing point of view must be conducted in order to ensure a successful sale of products. Product policy in the product life cycle process such as differentiation is not as effective as product innovation. Simons (2011) explored the characteristics of product markets and industry life cycle. The work of Giachetti, Marchi, and Corradini (2012) presented the best work on the concept of industry life cycle within the technology-based arena. Their work explored the evolution of company’s product strategy over the entire life cycle of information technology industries. The most interesting point that can be extracted from their work is that the global mobile phone industry experienced or entered the shake-out/cost phase in the 2000s. Strategy has therefore shifted from product towards process innovation. Innovation is also noted to play a major role in industry maturity.
1.1 Phases of industry life cycle
The work of Dinlersoz and MacDonald (2009) identified the following five phases in the development and maturity of an industry.
Early Stage Phase- This is an alternative product design as well as positioning stage. It involves the establishment of range as well as boundaries within a given industry
Innovation Phase- In this stage, product innovation is noted to decline while process innovation kicks in. It is at this phase that the ‘dominant design’ arrives
Shakeout Phase- At this stage, firms settle on their ‘dominant design’ and they achieve their economies of scale. This forces the smaller industry players to exit or be acquired. Barriers of entry get extremely high and large-scale consolidation is achieved.
Maturity- In this stage, growth is noted to be no longer the focus and both cash flow and market share become the main goal of firms that are left in operation.
Decline – At this stage, industries experience a decline in revenues. A new industry may replace the existing industry as a whole
This literature review indicates that there is a general lack of literature or knowledge on the role of industry life cycle in the development and marketing of information technology-based products and services such as the Android Smartphone technology system. In this paper, we explore this gap in knowledge through a critical analysis of the Smartphone industry. A case in point is how and when the Android OS changed the smartphone life cycle as depicted in Ferreira’s (2011) article.
2.0 Three themes that are present in Ferreira’s (2011) article titled “Android OS changes Smartphone life cycle”
A review of Ferreira’s (2011) work indicates that there are three main dominant themes. These are changing nature of customer needs, technological advancement and corporate social responsibility
2.1 Changing customer need
The global smartphone ecosystem is rapidly changing because of the dynamic nature of consumer needs. For companies to remain competitive, they must be able to identify with the rapidly changing consumer needs and then prioritize their aims and objectives along these lines. The smartphone industry has seen a phenomenal growth in terms of user experience and operating system development. The Android operating system, a derivation of Linux operating system has rapidly shifted consumer demands from the iOS powered iPhone to Android operating system devices.
Consumers’ need for stylish and highly multi-functional cell phones is what has driven the development of smartphones and their respective operating systems (Lin and Ye, 2008, p.617). It is important for manufacturers and other players within the smartphone ecosystem to monitor the dynamism of consumer needs in order help them in gaining a competitive advantage. Advancements within the smartphone ecosystem are continuously increasing and surpassing one another as new versions are constantly hitting the market at great speeds. According to Kano’s theory of customer satisfaction, customer satisfaction is directly proportional to the degree to which a given product or service is adequately functional. The changing nature of customer needs has led to constant operating system upgrades.
2.2 Technological advancement
Advances in technology have created a number of innovations within the smartphone ecosystem. The advent of Android operating system has resulted in the creation of better and more efficient smartphone systems. The Android technology offers a perfect example of how technology can be can be leveraged to enhance user experience CITATION HoT11 l 1033 (Ho & Chen, 2011)
2.3 Corporate Social Responsibility
Kotler and Lee (2005) defined the concept of corporate social responsibility as “a commitment to improve community well-being through discretionary business practices and contributions of corporate resources” (p.3). This means that a given business entity must have objectives that surpass financial gains. Within the smartphone ecosystem, players must ensure that all hardware and software applications are built while having the benefits to the community and environment in mind. In the past, the global smartphone industry was heavily criticized for building their hardware from minerals sourced through illegitimate and conflict-ridden sources. Titanium, Gold, Tungsten and Tin, the base materials for smartphones’ electronics were for long sourced from the eastern Democratic Republic. These minerals were being sourced in places where countless number lives were lost due to blood money generated from the illegal mining and smuggling activities in those areas. In other words, the money from minerals bought by the manufacturers of smartphones was being used to fund armed militias. This calls for some sort of accountability and social responsibility. In is also important for the smartphone application developers to ensure that their products consume less electricity or energy. This was they would be advancing the global sustainability agenda.
Industry background of smartphone industry life cycle diagram and it’s industry analysis (use graphs)
A review of extant literature suggests that the smartphone industry is approaching its maturity phase. The global smartphone industry is currently at an advanced growth phase. It is actually towards the end of growth phase and is fact-approaching maturity. Innovation is noted to be the key driver of this industry towards maturity CITATION Wes07 l 1033 (West & Mace, 2007).
Fig.1 Smartphone industry life cycle
Industry analysis
Introduction phase
The smartphone industry came into being in 1993 with the introduction of IBM Simon. This phone had PDA capabilities and was, arguably, the very first smartphone CITATION Ree10 l 1033 (Reed, 2010). This phase ended sometime in 1999.
Growth phase
The Smartphone industry entered its growth phase in 2002 with the multiple releases of smartphones such as Palm One, Pocket PC and Black Berry. This stage has had a steady rise but was recently forecasted to headed for a slump in growth rates (Kuittinen, 2013)
3.1 Apple industry life cycle and its analysis
A review of Apple Inc operations reveals that its industry life cycle is a unique one. This is due to the nature of product life cycles that it maintains for virtually all of its products. According to Yadegari (2012), apple has a way of ensuring that its products are always in the introduction and growth phases. In this company, the introduction stage includes the release of the original iPad, iPhone as well as iPod. When it comes to the growth stage, the company has a way of maintaining its products in this stage and to them “backwards”
Fig.2 Apple’s industry life cycle
Within the product life cycle, instead of allowing its products to reach maturity phase, it releases new and improved features. The company does this by improving its product quality, styles and well as improving its technology. This is best seen in the way it handles its products such as iPad Mini and iMac product ranges.
Fig. 3 iPhone product life cycle (Euromonitor, 2011)
Apple’s makes minor upgrades to its hardware as well as features with every version. A perfect example is the use of product extension in its product ranges. This is aimed at taking care of the needs of various consumer segments. At a time when iPhone was approaching its maturity stage, it released a low-cost model of its iPhone 4 that has no front-facing camera as well as retina display. Euromonitor (2011) reiterated this to have been an excellent offer to the late notes this adopted in the emerging economies such as India and China.
3.2 Samsung industry life cycle and its analysis
Samsung is an undisputed leader in the realm product life cycle design. The continuing rise in demand for smartphones coupled with competition that gets worse everyday makes indicates that the smartphone industry is at growth phase. This means that Samsung Mobile is at its growth phase as a company. The product life cycle of Samsung products is less than a year.
Critique of existing industry life cycle models and a review if they are valuable in today’s industry and what is it that it is missing.
The concept of industry life cycle is, in a profound one. This is because companies can use it in setting out their short and long-term objectives. A company that knows that it operates in an industry at an advanced or mature stage must consider venturing into other industries with growth potential while those that operate within a growing industry must formulate strategies for gaining a competitive advantage and accumulating as must profit as possible.
Despite its noble potential, the concept of industry life cycle as conceptual frameworks fails to consider the importance of services to every industry. The work of Cusano, Suarez and Kahl (2007) noted that existing models of industry life cycle main focuses on the changes in both products and services but with a conspicuous failure to explore the role of services in the cycle. There is therefore a need for the role of services at various stages in industry evolution to be incorporated into the existing industry life cycle models.
References
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