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Indigenous Underrepresentation in Mainstream Media and how Social Media is Utilized to Increase Representation (2)
Zexuan Li
Rob Hey
COMN 1000
2022.2.12
Indigenous Underrepresentation in Mainstream Media and how Social Media is Utilized to Increase Representation
Introduction
The aim of this essay is to review how mainstream media has largely ignored Indigenous populations. The recurrent issues are that mainstream media has yet to adopt appropriate Indigenous story telling techniques. Another issue is that Indigenous people are largely removed from media and cultural production. It is also concerning that independent indigenous media is undervalued. In doing so, the research will shed light on the ways that social media is changing this narrative by enabling representation.
Case Study
Having a strong sense of belonging to one’s community, as well as having a strong sense of belonging to one’s family, is essential for First Nations people to feel a strong sense of belonging. Because of government policies that were intended to destroy First Nation cultures, many communities across Canada are in a difficult position. When it comes to First Nations resiliency (belief systems, practices, and structures), there is a scarcity of resources that could have assisted them in resisting and re-constructing their identities in the face of imperial aggression. The plight of Indigenous peoples in Canada has been largely ignored by the mainstream media, both in terms of reporting and in terms of the creation of news stories. In Northwestern Ontario’s Sioux Lookout region, there is a connection between communal survivability and social networking platforms facilitated by internet usage. In the region, there are numerous First Nation (indigenous) settlements that can be found. Even if the cultural linkages that exist between these communities are strong, maintaining frequent communication in order to develop them was difficult prior to the broad adoption of the Internet in recent years. Today, the internet offers an unregulated platform for people to create their own independent content. Online travel and communication have grown more convenient as a result of the broad adoption of the internet among the aforementioned demographic. The preservation of culture and communication should be accomplished through the use of social media. It is impossible to overstate the importance of social media in building community resiliency.
Social media is now used in the Sioux Lookout region as a tool of resiliency. For the Indigenous populations in the Sioux Lookout area, resiliency means access to benefits of social media including social capital, the sharing of cultural stories, presenting the Indigenous views to the outside world, and general networking that is free of bias from mainstream media stereotypes. Top among the things that mainstream media has denied Indigenous groups is social capital by intentionally ignoring coverage of news and other information about said groups to the rest of the world (Okimakanak, 2014). When discussing social capital in a community, it is possible to consider it as a collection of various resources that must be shared across a diverse range of individuals and organizations (for example, women of different ages, men of different ages, children, grandparents, and the youth). As a kind of resistance to the conventional portrayals of Aboriginal people that are pervasive in popular culture, these tools also serve as a safeguard for indigenous cultural identity.
The use of social media by the Indigenous communities in the Sioux Lookout region is an introduction to why media is important. It creates a narrative by the people for the people. The Sioux Lookout region use of social media to tell their own stories to the rest of the world is a new beginning. It is, according to Oyedemi (2019), an attempt to thwart the negative influences of mainstream media in relation to misrepresentation of a group of people. Oyedemi (2019) reports on what went on in Nigeria where media imperialism has always had a say in how a people are portrayed in mainstream media. In order for social capital to exist, there must be dense, interconnected networks of people who can share knowledge and engage in activity with one another. The process of sharing and listening to stories together contributes to the development of the relationships that exist between those who are taking part in the activity. In its ability to aid individuals, particularly young people, in coming to terms with their pasts and imagining a more promising future for themselves, stories have great potential to be transformative. In order to share their experiences, Aboriginal youngsters are turning to social media, which is assisting in the preservation of their culture in the modern world. Networks possess a variety of important characteristics, two of which are the ability to bridge and link interactions (connections among communities). The ability of a community to exert influence on society as a whole is bolstered by the relationships that it has with people who are not members of its own group. Even in ordinary circumstances, the utilization of networks can be useful, particularly in times of extreme need. Networks can provide material, economic, and informational resources, as well as assist in problem solving and provide emotional and other types of support, among many other things.
Analysis of the Problem
Independently Produced Indigenous Media as a Contrast to Mainstream Media
By focusing on the Sioux Lookout region of Northwestern Ontario, social media usage is explored creating a link between social networking and increased representation. Apart from social media, independent indigenous media outlets such as the First Nations Drum, Windspeaker, CBC Indigenous, The Nation, and National Indigenous Times are some of the leading avenues that are used to incorporate Indigenous views and cultures into the main societies. Social media, albeit a stand-alone platform, can also be categorized as an independent media on the basis of how it enables personalization of content and individual contributions away from the confines of restrictive media culture (Okimakanak, 2014). The case study shows that independently produced Indigenous media, social media included, allow more insight into the way the Indigenous communities are constructed, their cultural norms, engagement, communication, and their thought processes regarding the rest of the world.
Compared to mainstream media, independently produced Indigenous media such as social media channels and news outlets focusing solely on Indigenous people and cultures will help to end the misrepresentation that is seen to day in movies, print media, television, and by the popular culture. Indigenous media, which is created and distributed by indigenous peoples themselves and which contributes to the preservation of indigenous languages while also providing a public forum for debate of indigenous issues, can be used to preserve tribal heritage and culture (Roth, 2013). Additionally, indigenous media can serve as a source of knowledge about signs of cultural and social change. To participate in social movements, cultural transformations, and language preservation efforts, Native American society is reliant on the media, which is backed by the federal government in all of these endeavors. An important component of cultural policy is the documentation and preservation of traditional customs, as well as the promotion of artistic manifestations such as music and handicrafts, among other things (Foster, 2008). People from indigenous communities can gain from high-quality media productions that portray them in a good light and assist them in gaining more attention.
Limitations of Social Media Engagement and Independently Produced Indigenous Media
In order to produce online applications in their own local languages, an increasing number of indigenous television cultural professionals are turning to social media. Applications like these boost education in poor countries and help indigenous peoples feel more in control of their lives. Journalists frequently use social media to engage directly with their audience and to solicit feedback on their articles. The effectiveness of a media outlet can be improved by soliciting comments from its audience; however, Indigenous media outlets have not yet acquired the status of mainstream media (Foster, 2008). Language issues have been a major source of disagreement and intense debate, and they have brought to light the flaws and limitations of indigenous media outlets. For indigenous media outlets, it is challenging to find reporters who are fluent in their own languages. After years of providing indigenous language news, some mainstream media outlets had to pair experienced anchors with newcomers so that the latter could learn from the former.
Mainstream media treatment of Indigenous populations in the past and present
In order to create a truly multicultural community, it is critical that each indigenous ethnic group receives the respect and attention that it deserves and that each indigenous ethnic group obtains the resources that it requires. Indigenous-produced media may be able to fill in some of the information gaps that many people have about the media that they are exposed to on a daily basis if they are distributed widely enough (Foster, 2008). It is necessary to identify major themes in cultural translations and indigenous media in order to effectively connect ethnic groups and help them understand one another. It is possible that challenges will arise when old rituals are combined with new technologies; yet, indigenous media can serve as a platform for indigenous voices while also presenting their own particular viewpoints on the world around them.
When it comes to cinema and television portrayals of indigenous peoples, they have been done in a way that reflects the general public’s perspective and treatment of indigenous peoples. The act of appropriating something from another culture and incorporating it into your own can be problematic in a variety of ways, especially if the appropriation is coming from a dominant culture like the United States of America (Proudfoot & Habibis, 2015). Historically, European colonial society has held sway over the narrative surrounding Indigenous peoples for a long period of time.
For many Indigenous people, stories are more than just a source of entertainment; they are also a means of transmitting knowledge and practices from one generation to the next. While covering COVID-19, which continues to cause enormous harm to Indigenous communities, mainstream media frequently focuses on only one aspect of the Indigenous story, such as vulnerabilities, traditions, or harmful stereotypes, rather than covering the entire story (Okimakanak, 2014). It is the responsibility of each individual to express himself or herself in the manner that is most comfortable for him or her. When people see and hear Indigenous-created content, they are more likely to have a diverse range of social perspectives, experience less stigma, and gain a better understanding, which leads to greater respect and interest.
Frequently used narratives regarding Indigenous people in the mainstream media
Throughout history, indigenous people have been portrayed inaccurately in the media in a variety of mediums, including film and television. One of the most common misrepresentations of Indigenous people is the romanticization of Native American clichés, which are based on European worldviews and are therefore inaccurate (Harvey, 2020). It is most common to see misrepresentations of the indigenous warrior on television. This was a recurring motif in Western films for a long period of time. Another popular romanticization of Indigenous people is their depiction as a form of “noble savage,” which is a term that refers to a seemingly proud uncivilized individual. When a person exhibits this trait, he or she has the ability to transcend physical constraints while maintaining a strong spiritual connection to the land, as per the common narrative portrayed by mainstream media. Proudfoot and Habibis (2015) note that Indigenous peoples have been portrayed as model ecologists or environmentalists by using archetypes like this one to promote their cause.
Facilitation of increased representation on social media and other forms of independently produced indigenous media
When mainstream media (both electronic and print) found their way into Indian Country for the first time, there was a tremendous cultural assimilation drive on the part of indigenous peoples. Several indigenous organizations have attempted to use the media to better serve their goals of conserving indigenous culture, language, and identity by including media into their overall strategy of adapting to their environment (Kirmayer, Simpson, & Cargo, 2003). As a result of modern initiatives, such as social media and independently produced native media, a national Aboriginal television network and a half-dozen Aboriginal radio networks, which broadcast to hundreds of towns in dozens of indigenous languages, have sprung up in response to recent developments.
Sioux Lookout is dedicated to telling the story of indigenous peoples’ successes and failures in their efforts to harness media for their own gain and counteract the absorbing influence of mainstream media on their lives. Sioux Lookout is dedicated to telling the story of indigenous peoples’ successes and failures in their efforts to harness media for their own gain and counteract the absorbing influence of mainstream media on their lives. Among the most prominent manifestations of the tension between sequential and cyclical thinking is the search for an Aboriginal voice in the media. Trying to find an Aboriginal voice in the media may be a time-consuming and tough endeavor. Despite the fact that the media can serve as a tool for indigenous peoples’ preservation while also functioning as a weapon for their destruction (Gone et al., 2019), indigenous peoples’ languages and cultures are under attack. Today, social media, as a form of independently produced indigenous media through dedicated channels and forums, is helping to change the narrative.
Conclusion
Despite the misrepresentation and underrepresentation of Indigenous people in mainstream media through journalism and news creation avenues, social media is helping to change the narrative. It is, in the context of this essay, considered a form of independently produced indigenous media through dedicated channels and forums. It has enabled personalization of content and individual contributions away from the confines of restrictive media culture as showcased by the Sioux Lookout region.
References
Belfer, E., Ford, J. D., & Maillet, M. (2017). Representation of Indigenous peoples in climate change reporting. Climatic Change, 145(1), 57-70.
Foster, A. A. (2008). Aboriginal presence in the mainstream media: Issues and journalists. Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, University of Regina.
Gone, J. P., Hartmann, W. E., Pomerville, A., Wendt, D. C., Klem, S. H., & Burrage, R. L. (2019). The impact of historical trauma on health outcomes for indigenous populations in the USA and Canada: A systematic review. American Psychologist, 74(1), 20.
Harvey, A. (2020), Feminist Media Studies. Representing Gender. Cambridge, UK, Polity Press, 211 pp.
Kirmayer, L., Simpson, C., & Cargo, M. (2003). Healing traditions: Culture, community and mental health promotion with Canadian Aboriginal peoples. Australasian Psychiatry, 11(1_suppl), S15-S23.
Lavrence, C., & Cambre, C. (2020). “Do I Look Like My Selfie?”: Filters and the Digital-Forensic Gaze. Social Media+ Society, 6(4), 2056305120955182.
Okimakanak, K. (2014). Research in Brief Social Media in Remote First Nation Communities. Canadian Journal of Communication, 39, 275-288.
Oyedemi, T. D. (2019). Global digital capitalism: Mark Zuckerberg in Lagos and the political economy of Facebook in Africa. International Journal of Communication, 13, 17.
Proudfoot, F., & Habibis, D. (2015). Separate worlds: A discourse analysis of mainstream and Aboriginal populist media accounts of the Northern Territory Emergency Response in 2007. Journal of Sociology, 51(2), 170-188.
Roth, L. (2013). Canadian First Peoples’ mediascapes:(Re) framing a snapshot with three corners. Mediascapes: New patterns in Canadian communication, 364-89.
Steinman, E. (2019). Why was Standing Rock and the# NoDAPL campaign so historic? Factors affecting American Indian participation in social movement collaborations and coalitions. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(7), 1070-1090.
Indigenous Peoples and Self-Determination in International Law
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Indigenous Peoples and Self-Determination in International Law, the Declaration of the UN on Indigenous Peoples’ Rights and the Draft Nordic Saami Convention
Numerous global events are increasingly indicating a trend that humankind has never witnessed before, s trend of the world becoming more closely knit each day. All human nations, societies, cultures and governments are fighting to understand this new reality. The pain and agony of the coming of a new reality and the world is visible within numerous entities. The trend of globalization has not made matters any better as it is increasing in speed each day. In this new world, human beings are required to create new institutions of decision- making and governance. The UN is the only true step towards international governance system that tries to embrace the idea of a wholesome human race.
Ever since the beginning of the new global era, in which the ILO league was founded, the indigenous people of the world were treated as if they had no place in this world, or as if they did not exist at all. Governments all over the world have systematically on a wide range worked hard to extinguish these individuals, their way of life and cultures. They have arbitrarily taken over the property of these people and their waters and land. In addition to this, governments have systematically ignored the call for autonomy by the indigenous people and call for an independent voice, both internationally and domestically. If there is anything the indigenous peoples have in common is that they do not trust their governments and that they wish to speak for their rights and themselves.
The United Nations recently invited and welcomed the indigenous people to become members of the UN family, and to help add to the tasks of the UN. However, this was amid much confusion and many unanswered questions. For instance, people wondered how is it that the UN permanent forum for these individuals is nothing more than the newest chapter in the history of these individuals at the UN. People also wondered whether the indigenous people really had become true members of the UN family. Before this, many people were oblivious to the essentiality of the permanent forum. Even experts for human rights have no or limited knowledge of it and almost nothing is documented about the forum. So the questions continued, and one of the most essential is whether the UN was perhaps exaggerating and only being nice to the indigenous people or whether it was being truthful.
Extensive scholarly works on this issue of indigenous self- governance and autonomy show that autonomy legal concepts suffer from immense confusion. In the following paper, I present a survey if the governance concept in legal scholarship in an attempt to come up with normative grounds for the right of the indigenous people to autonomy. The paper will, therefore, discuss two main things, at first, it will discuss the general considerations of theoretical aspects of the autonomy concept on public law, and examine the level to which the right to autonomy can be justified and defines in the light of comparative and international constitutional legislation. The second section of the paper will give a brief overview of the indigenous people autonomy. By discussing the issue of whether there is an emerging right to autonomy of the indigenous people, the paper will show the ambiguity and confusion surrounding the right to autonomy as presented by the international law. In conclusion, it will be shown that although it is contained in the concept of self- determination, one can truly understand the scope and content of the indigenous people autonomy in the concept of a specific situation and not generally.
One of the most significant results of the UN declaration is the acknowledgement of the right to self- determination of the indigenous people. The inclusion of an express provision on the matter in the document was one of the key controversial items during the process of drafting since it touches on increasingly fundamental concepts for both states and the indigenous groups. Also, the Brazil representative expressed the challenges of the government in regards to the right to self- determination in the context of the declaration draft. Nevertheless, the final draft of the declaration puts together a number of provisions which indirectly and directly declare the right of the indigenous people to self- determination and delineate its scope. The key provision of the right offers merely the beginning point for the comprehension of the self- determination content as defined by the declaration.
It establishes a right that is unqualified at first sight, which does not refer to the principle of the territorial integrity of states or political unity, when compared to other international instruments concerning similar issues. Nevertheless article 46 of the declaration makes its scope clear, determining a principle of general interpretation, according to which, nothing in the declaration should be interpreted as implying for any particular state, group, people or person any right to participate in any act or to perform any activity in contrast to the UN charter or construed as encouraging or authorizing any action which has the potential to impair or dismember the political unity or territorial integrity of independent and sovereign states.
Irrespective of these clear statements, a systematic analysis of the UN declaration would result to the conclusion that the exercise of the right of the indigenous groups to self- determination, in the manner the document describes, presupposes the scope of life within a state framework. No provision or article in the declaration suggests a right to the so- called external self- determination or right to secession. The content of the specific right of the indigenous people to self- determination according to the declaration establishes firstly, standards of quality to be attained under two main premises, the political participation of the indigenous people and their self- governance. These are the ideologies that merge the concerns of the state and the indigenous people into a common convergent notion of self- determination, better understood when placed against the challenging background of coexistence of a number of groups within a state and internal governance.
The position of independence or autonomy in international law can be accessed through the analysis of international law sources like treaties, customs, and practices of international organizations, conventions, reports, doctrines and documents. Analysis of these sources of information indicates that there are weak grounds for the acknowledgement of autonomy as an international law principle. However, other sources indicate otherwise. In such sources, autonomy is shown as a principle of international law because firstly, autonomy for certain populations are a principle of international law founded on an allegation of a popular practice of leading states. Secondly, it is a principle because it is a right of minorities that are distinctive. The third argument is based on the issue of self- determination of populations. Concerning the first argument, there is a developing consensus internationally that political autonomy is the proper response to the trend of territorial minorities, especially territorial indigenous minority populations. It is, however, unclear whether there is a practice of autonomy that is common.
It is also not persuasive that self-government for certain people is a standard of international habitual law or not. Arguably, the status of the minority can be equated with the autonomy right. This alleged right can be said to be customary law obtained from the constant occurrence of autonomy. However, forms of autonomy and self- governance vary so much in different cases that their specific context remain a customary rule that has not evolved, as well as, doubtful. The right to autonomy is also not expressed in major international documents that concern the rights of the minority or in the practices of the Council of Europe, or some universal rights treaty of the minority or the United Nations. As it follows, in the context of the rights of the minority, autonomy appears as pragmatic or hortatory politics refusing to change itself into a coherent norm or maybe dissolving into sub constituencies that are conceptual before our eyes. Therefore, there is no distinctive minority right to autonomy as an international law principle.
Indigenous groups have time and again underlined that recognition of self- determination right is a precondition for the effective practice of the rest of fundamental human rights and freedoms. Correspondingly, from the initial meeting of the Expert Group, the appointees of the Saami convention declared that any Saami convention, to be acceptable, must acknowledge the right of the Saami people to self- determination. The members of the government were sympathetic of this plea. During its first year of work, the Expert Group devoted most of its time to main discussions on the matter of self- determination.
In addition to this, the expert Group appointed a smaller group from its members to draft a memorandum, outlining contemporary position of the international law on self- determination rights of the indigenous people. It is only fair to indicate that the issue of self- determination dominated the early period of the work of the group. It was clear to all of the group’s members that the position of the Expert group took on the self- determination right would significantly affect the rest of the Saami Convention. Yet the discussions on the self- determination issue never really took off. Without a significant debate, a consensus emerged that it is clear that the Saami people actually constitutes such a people that is entitles to the self- determination rights.
Conclusion
Analysis of the autonomy concept and the existence of the autonomy right in the main literary sources of constitutional and international law as they bear on the considered cases in this survey show that there is a weak or limited normative basis for this critical right. However, it is becoming clear and gradually achieving more de jure support in the international organizations’ practices, the Draft UN Declaration on the indigenous people’s rights, documents and in the constitutional jurisprudence. Eventually, the autonomy right will obtain explicit acknowledgement and support in the public law sources. The concept of this right is evolving and currently, it has a stronger foundation for its legal implementation and justification as regards the autonomy right of the indigenous people when compared to other populations.
Flaws in an Argument
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Flaws in an Argument
A flawed or unsound argument exhibits one or more fallacies. Before judging whether an argument is sound, one must examine it carefully. The statement, ‘A great leader is best judged by the wellbeing of the people of his country’ is valid in some cases but also unsound in other instances. Some of the most common fallacies in arguments include generalization, hasty conclusion, the bandwagon fallacy (Boudry et al 433) among many others.
The statement is said to be sound because great leadership influences the wellbeing of the people. For example, a great president will put in place economic policies designed to spur economic growth and create jobs for their people. If the people take advantage of the excellent leadership skills of the president, then their lives will improve. In this way, the people’s wellbeing will be a reflection of the president’s leadership, and one can judge the leader by the wellbeing of his people.
One flaw in the argument is that the people bear no responsibility for their own wellbeing. The statement implies that the people can do nothing for themselves; they can only wait for their leaders to do everything for them. If the president of a country has enacted policies that promote economic growth, access to education and other things that promote the welfare of the citizens, individuals still have the responsibility to take advantage of these. Individuals are responsible for their wellbeing when leaders have done their part in enabling people to access a better life. The argument also fails to recognize that people could be doing well, even with a weak leader. In the presence of strong government systems and other factors, people need not rely on their leaders to determine their wellbeing.
In conclusion, the argument is strong because it gives room for the leader to be judged on other merits. However, one fallacy in it is that it is an argument to the population, where people want to blame leaders for everything that happens to them. The wellbeing of the people depends on both the leadership as well as individual effort.
Works Cited
Boudry, Maarten, Fabio Paglieri, and Massimo Pigliucci. “The fake, the flimsy, and the fallacious: Demarcating arguments in real life.” Argumentation 29.4 (2015): 431-456.