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Income Inequality in the United States
Income Inequality in the United States
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Income Inequality in the United States
Introduction
Income inequality refers to the wide gap that exists between money earned by the poorest and the richest people within an economy. Income includes investment earnings, wages, rent, and real estate sales. For a while now, the issue of rising economic equality has become a central issue for the Democratic presidential nominal and policy intervention discussions in the United States. Income inequality is a significant part of how people understand socioeconomic status, including the way people identify middle, upper, and working class. Income inequality is affected by various forms of inequality, such as political power, wealth, and status. This text highlights the status of income inequality in the United States compared to other countries, its consequences, and why people should care about income inequality.
Status of Income Inequality in the United States Compared to Other Countries
In the past 50 years, 20% of highest-earning of United States households have steadily brought a considerable portion of the country’s entire income. According to the Census Bureau Data, in 2018 alone, households that are categorized as top fifth earners accounted for 52% of all income in the United States (Auten & Splinter, 2018). This accounts for more than low four-fifths combined. By comparison, 20% of top-earning households accounted for 43% of United States income compared to 56% for the lower four income quintiles in the year 1968. By 2018, top 5% of households’ income increased to 23% from 16% in 1968.
According to statistics from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), income inequality is highest in the United States compared to other nations. OECD employs the Gini coefficient to compare income inequalities of various countries. The measure ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (complete inequality). In 2017, the United States Gini coefficient stood at 0.434. Other countries had a slightly lower Gini coefficient, with France and United Kingdom coefficients standing at 0.326 and 0.392, respectively. According to World Bank estimates, globally, Gini coefficient range from lows of 0.25 to 0.5-0.16 for Eastern European and Southern African countries, respectively.
Overall, 61% of Americans are of the opinion that there is too much economic inequality in the United States today, however, the views tend to differ by household income level and political party. According to a 2019 Pew Research Center survey, amongst Republicans, 41% agree that income inequality is at its highest in the United States while 78% of Democrats and their learners do not agree. Depending on the income groups, U.S adults are likely to agree that income inequality is at an all-time high. However, 27% of upper-income and 26% of middle-income Americans are more likely to agree that there is just about the correct amount of income inequality compared to 17% of lower-income Americans. While the views vary depending on income in two-party coalitions, low-income Republicans are more likely to agree that income inequality in the country is high today (48% vs. 34%). The reverse is true for Democrats, with 93% of high income Democrats agreeing that income inequality is at an all-time high compared to 65% of low-income who do not agree.
Noteworthy, the income gap between black and white counterparts in the United States has persisted over time. The difference in median incomes for black and white households has increased from $23, 800 in 1970 to $33, 000 in 2018. The median income for black households was 61% in 2018 compared to 56% in 1970. According to Current Population Survey data, the figure is a slight reduction of 63% before the Great Recession of 2007.
Why Care About Economic Inequality
Inequality Boots Fairness
One of the main reasons why people should care about economic inequality is that it boosts fairness. Some people argue that a society that has pronounced economic inequality is fairer than one that has general, equal wealth distribution. Unconstrained markets tend to develop economic inequalities more naturally. Generally, economic equality needs employment of redistributive state policies like progressive taxes. In essence, economic equality needs taking from those who have and giving to those who do not. The notion is that property rights form the basis for neoliberal economic theory. States view it as a necessary evil to facilitate a free and rational operating market. Political interference for natural economic processes should be maintained to a minimum since government interference tends to disrupt the moral rights of individual freedom and independence. Redistribution does not seem fair to some people. Redistributive policies and taxes curtail income inequality involuntarily and take away assets from people without a necessary exchange.
Growth
Another reason why people should care about income inequality because it drives growth. Increasing levels of economic inequality tend to correlate with economic growth. A perfect example of the correlation between wealth disparity and economic growth is the economic expansion that took place in the United States in the years prior to 2008. The period coincided with the rising income inequality rates. During the economic recession of 2007-2008, income inequality reduced drastically. As the country began to recover from the recession, so did the income inequality rates. According to observers, incentives tend to be greater for entrepreneurship and innovation when inequality is high. For instance, high-executive positions that attract high salaries tend to create an incentive for low-income earners to get coveted labor positions. Less-wealthy members of society work hard, develop new businesses and invent products to becoming members of the highest income groups. Contrary to this, when the income inequality gap is small, low-income groups tend to have fewer incentives to upscale their income.
Consequences of Income Inequality on Society
Inequality Reduced Educational quality
One of the main consequences associated with income inequality is decreased education. There is substantial empirical research that links poverty to education. Countries with a low–income population and a high degree of economic equality have significantly higher educational levels ( Tsui, Enderle, & Jiang, 2018). An increase of one-point in the Gini coefficient translates into a 40% increased in graduation and a 10% reduction in high school graduation. In a society that is economically equal, its wide-average education level reduces while educational elites increase. One of the proposed connections between inequality and education is that societies that are unequal tend to underinvest in education. The result is that poor people cannot invest or pay for education or spend time in school, which could otherwise be used to spend working. The benefit of increased Gross Domestic Product (GDP) coincides with increased inequality rates. From a liberal economic theorists’ perspective, fairness is maximized in societies that are economically stratified to avoid redistributive theorists.
Economic Inequality Stifles Growth
High economic inequality translates to high poverty levels. Poverty is linked with poor public health and crime, which tends to burden the economy. In the face of low incomes and rising food prices, the support for growth government policies tends to reduce. People that are wealthy tend to support disproportionate political power over poor citizens. This encourages the emergence of inefficient tax structures that are skewed in favor of the wealthy. Unequal distribution of income warrants political stability that discourages capital accumulation threatens property rights, and increases risk of repudiated contracts.
Inequality and Crime
Another consequence of income inequality to society has to do with increased crime. According to numerous studies, there is a positive correlation between crime and inequality. According to research conducted between 1968 and 2000, economically unequal societies tend to have a higher crime rate (Liu, Wei, & Simon, 2017). Survey concludes that inequality is the single factor that is consistently and closely related to crime. Additionally, inequality boots incentives to carry out crime. There are few legal methods for obtaining resources that are available for the ever-rising number of few people in society. Even after taking into consideration punishments, illegal methods of obtaining assets tend to have better returns than legal means of getting resources.
Conclusion
In closing, it is no doubt that income inequality is a hot topic of discussion in United States politics. Paying attention to income inequality is crucial as it is important to driving growth and development in a society. As regards trends, the United States economy is performing well on various fronts. The two main reasons why we should pay attention to economic inequality are that it drives growth and increases fairness. The common consequences of income inequality to society are that it cripples growth, leads to crime, and reduces the quality of education. While it is true that income inequality has increased significantly over the last decade, it has boosted the rise of the top wealthy.
References
Auten, G., & Splinter, D. (2018). Income inequality in the United States: Using tax data to measure long-term trends. Washington, DC: Joint Committee on Taxation.
Liu, B., Wei, Y. D., & Simon, C. A. (2017). Social capital, race, and income inequality in the United States. Sustainability, 9(2), 248.
Tsui, A. S., Enderle, G., & Jiang, K. (2018). Income inequality in the United States: Reflections on the role of corporations.
INCLUSIVE HRM PRACTICES THE ROLE OF THE HR FUNCTION IN ENHANCING GENDER BALANCE
INCLUSIVE HRM PRACTICES: THE ROLE OF THE HR FUNCTION IN ENHANCING GENDER BALANCE
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1. Introduction
Even with the recognition and knowledge that effectiveness can be achieved through diversity management and appropriate human resource management (HRM) strategies, there are limited studies focusing on how effective HRM can use strategies to increase diversity and specifically attain gender equality and appropriate levels of balance. A survey study by Bourke et al. (2014) found that even with the advancement and expansion of the HRM function in China, there is very low representation of women in the workplace. Further, a study by Spector et al. (2019) posit that despite the increasing number of literature focusing on gender representation and equality in the workforce, the Chinese workplace has yet to implement suitable practices that will enable HRM transformation for improved employee outcomes. Based on previous literature, there is evidence of discrimination along gender lines of Chinese employees based on recruitment practices and HRM conduct (Fine & Sojo, 2019). To understand why the HRM function in China is yet to fully embrace strategies that lead to gender equality and balance, the paper will review themes relating to the development of the workforce, the prejudice in employment practices, the notable lack of political goodwill guided by a sluggish legislation on the same, and the misconceptions regarding the role of women in a workforce. Markedly, HRM managers in China seem to be rigid to changes proposed on a global front relating to more inclusion and the improvement of the workforce in a way that gender balance and equality are attained (Festing, Kornau, & Schäfer, 2015). Therefore, HRM practices are largely traditional despite the positive movement of the Chinese public and private sectors and the employment scene. The report will offer recommendations for future HRM managers to create an inclusive environment for better employee outcomes.
2. Review of Literature
2.1 Historical Development of the HRM Function in China
In the mid-20th century, China used a completely centralized and planned economy, meaning that every sector or industry was run and owned by the government (Tatli, Ozturk, & Woo, 2017). Personnel management featured a strict and rigid system and a welfare policy following the same model. In a guaranteed lifetime employment structure, and the selection of employment on the basis of political affiliation, iron wages, and other rigid systems, the movement from a centralized and planned economy took time before it could wear off. The system was efficient in the short term, creating employee participation and involvement by guaranteeing employment to the majority of the Chinese people. At the time, employees were assigned lifetime roles and a state-run/owned enterprise. Even though the system attained full employment, Chen, Zhang, Sanders, & Xu (2018) note that it brought about serious challenges in the long run, including overstaffing, inefficient labor use, and a lack of motivation. Yet, the greatest of shortcomings was a notable lack of a HRM function that would help in creating an effective workplace culture. The absence of a HRM function in China created a culture that did not actively look for ways to improve the workplace. A century later, the HRM function is still largely a purely administrative role, one that despite decentralization of ownership and planning, has continued to inform the direction of policy and practices. The main challenges for the HRM function have been recurrent shortcomings relating to lower productivity, lateness issues, unmotivated workers who are difficult to train, a lack of valuable skills, and poor performance all round (Peixoto et al., 2018). However, all of these issues do not compare to the problem that has plagued the Chinese workforce, poor HRM inclusion in the employment practices, leading to poor gender representation, balance, and equality.
2.2 Gender Discrimination in the Chinese Workforce
In China, there is a unique phenomenon where men outnumber the women in terms of population. In the country’s workforce, women make up roughly 43% of the labor force, in a phenomenon characterized by a diminishing employment opportunities, a widening gender gap, and a resurgence of stereotypes relating to women and work (Chyu et al., 2021). The societal view of women as primary caregivers has led to a wave of discrimination at the workplace, featuring favoritism for men in employment opportunities and other related functions and roles in the workforce. In job advertisements, the HRM function for many employers as continued to apply gender stereotypes as well as discriminatory language in recruitment practices (Offermann & Basford, 2014). Firms commonly include a requirement and preference for male candidates or plainly include physical requirements for women in terms of appearance and marital status relating to job duties. As such, employment practices have largely created a culture of discrimination. While China recently enacted laws to expand protection of women in the workplace through banning requirements that include demanding for marital and family status, the culture in the workplace is deeply rooted, and one that the HRM function largely ignores. For example, pregnancy discrimination is still a prevalent practice in the Chinese workforce where employers defy legislation and labor laws.
2.3 Misconceptions Regarding the Role of Women in the Workforce
There is a notable widening gap in the Chinese labor force that has hindered the participation and earnings of women in a structure that can be termed as equal or balanced. Despite a competitive landscape that has been brought about by the loosening of government control over the labor market, Donnelly (2015) assert that even the private sector firms are yet to fully embrace diversity and inclusion. The HRM function in China is still in its infant stages, and Bilimoria, Joy, & Liang (2008) are of the opinion that there are many misconceptions relating to the role of women in the labor market. In the rest of the world, in the US and Australia for example, the gender gap is closing while the opposite in happening in the Chinese labor force. For the rest of the world, the HRM function in every employment scene has endeavored to paint a picture of women as equal to men, both in pay and in other employment practices. Sherbin & Rashid (2017) concluded that the growing gender gap in the Chinese labor market will be a burden to the budding economy if the conditions persist. There are persistent misconceptions that women are not actively looking for better opportunities in the workforce, that they only want a place to belong, that they are not ambitious enough, that their lifestyle choices hinder them, that they are too emotional, are meant to be caregivers, and that they are not qualified to lead, and that gender equality is a myth. These misconceptions are only beginning to rise now. Traditionally, China had a very impressive representation of women in the workplace, albeit in a system that lacked a proper HRM structure. Currently, the workplace does not include provisions for women to be the best they can be in their roles and duties in the workforce. There are no accommodations made to ensure that women are able to give their best. The misconceptions and discriminatory nature of the rules and regulations of the workplace are a cause for concern in regards to the Chinese workforce. Flexible working time and more time to complete tasks are some of the provisions made in nations such as Japan to ensure that women are able to catch up to their male colleagues because of their added roles in the society (Özbilgin, 2009). The HRM function will need to make provisions that will improve inclusion and diversity, in a way that will significantly reduce discrimination of women in the workplace.
3. Discussion
This report has reviewed themes relating to the development of the workforce, the prejudice in employment practices, the notable lack of political goodwill guided by a sluggish legislation on the same, and the misconceptions regarding the role of women in a workforce. Legislative measures are noted to have been implemented in some of the positive strides that China is taking to ensure more active participation and involvement of women in the workforce. However, a culture of discrimination and exclusion has largely been formed due to a poor development of the HRM function. Even with the advancement and expansion of the HRM function in China, there is very low representation of women in the workplace. Further, the report has found that despite the increasing number of literature focusing on gender representation and equality in the workforce, the Chinese workplace has yet to implement suitable practices that will enable HRM transformation for improved employee outcomes. Notably, there is evidence of discrimination along gender lines of Chinese employees based on recruitment practices and HRM conduct. The historical development of China’s HRM function in the labor force indicates that in the previously used rigid and centrally planned economy, personnel management featured a strict and rigid system and a welfare policy following the same model. The selection of employment on the basis of political affiliation, iron wages, and other rigid systems, and the movement from a centralized and planned economy have taken time before they could be replaced. Serious challenges have emerged including overstaffing, inefficient labor use, and a lack of motivation for employees. A notable lack of a HRM function that would help in creating an effective workplace culture has also emerged as a negative consequence. Markedly, the absence of a HRM function in China created a culture that did not actively look for ways to improve the workplace. The main challenges for the HRM function have been recurrent shortcomings relating to lower productivity, lateness issues, unmotivated workers who are difficult to train, a lack of valuable skills, and poor performance. Additionally, poor HRM inclusion in the employment practices is a major problem that has led to poor gender representation, imbalance, and inequality.
In the past, the gender gap in the Chinese labor force was narrow compared to major economies such as Japan and the US. The earlier successes was largely a result of the then centrally planned structure of work and a strong state-led commitment to promote gender equality and balance. The commitment was easy to translate into practical policies as well as actions at the time due to the centralized state control over the economy. Today, a more free market policy has created a scenario where discrimination is high amongst women in the workforce, created by a HRM function that is only trying to find its footing. The societal view of women as primary caregivers has led to a wave of discrimination at the workplace, featuring favoritism for men in employment opportunities and other related functions and roles in the workforce. The report notes that firms commonly include a requirement and preference for male candidates or plainly include physical requirements for women in terms of appearance and marital status relating to job duties. As such, employment practices have largely created a culture of discrimination, coupled with a lack of a strong HRM role and function.
Increasingly, a notable widening gap is coming up in the Chinese labor force that has hindered the participation and earnings of women in a structure that can be termed as equal or balanced. Even with its competitive landscape that has been brought about by the loosening of government control over the labor market, the private sector firms are yet to fully embrace diversity and inclusion. Managers in HR are focused on other issues that have largely occupied managerial and employment responsibilities. The discussion notes that the HRM function in China is still in its infant stages, and there are many misconceptions relating to the role of women in the labor market. In the rest of the world, in the US and Australia for example, the gender gap is closing while the opposite in happening in the Chinese labor force. For the rest of the world, the HRM function in every employment scene has endeavored to paint a picture of women as equal to men, both in pay and in other employment practices. These misconceptions are only beginning to rise now. Traditionally, China had a very impressive representation of women in the workplace, albeit in a system that lacked a proper HRM structure. Currently, the Chinese workplace does not include provisions for women to be the best they can be in their roles and duties in the workforce. They are constrained by an ineffective HRM function that has yet to redefine its role in the labor force.
4. Recommendations
There is a dire need for the HRM function in China to redefine its role in a way that is aligned to its current needs. To include women and create a diverse and inclusive culture, it is recommended that HRM managers give training to raise awareness and promote fair behaviors, provide childcare facilities, family-friendly policies and childcare vouchers, mentorship attained through shining a spotlight on successful women in your company, both internally and through media channels — and ask senior women to act as mentors, and establishing policies for fair pay and work/life balance, and ensure managers fully support them. It is also recommended that managers realize that a truly inclusive work culture ensures that every employee, regardless of their gender identity, feels supported and respected. In addition to this sense of belonging, a work culture focused on gender inclusion has the power to elevate previously unheard voices and value diverse experiences, fostering an environment of authentic respect and trust.
References
Bilimoria, D., Joy, S., & Liang, X. (2008). Breaking barriers and creating inclusiveness: Lessons of organizational transformation to advance women faculty in academic science and engineering. Human Resource Management: Published in Cooperation with the School of Business Administration, The University of Michigan and in alliance with the Society of Human Resources Management, 47(3), 423-441.
Bourke, J., Smith, C., Stockton, H., & Wakefield, N. (2014). From diversity to inclusion. Global Human Capital Trends, 87-93.Chen, W., Zhang, Y., Sanders, K., & Xu, S. (2018). Family-friendly work practices and their outcomes in China: The mediating role of work-to-family enrichment and the moderating role of gender. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 29(7), 1307-1329.
Chyu, J., Peters, C. E., Nicholson, T. M., Dai, J. C., Taylor, J., Garg, T., … & Psutka, S. P. (2021). Women in leadership in urology: the case for increasing diversity and equity. Urology, 150, 16-24.
Donnelly, R. (2015). Tensions and challenges in the management of diversity and inclusion in IT services multinationals in India. Human Resource Management, 54(2), 199-215.
Festing, M., Kornau, A., & Schäfer, L. (2015). Think talent–think male? A comparative case study analysis of gender inclusion in talent management practices in the German media industry. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 26(6), 707-732.
Fine, C., & Sojo, V. (2019). Women’s value: beyond the business case for diversity and inclusion. The Lancet, 393(10171), 515-516.
Offermann, L. R., & Basford, T. E. (2014). Inclusive human resource management. Diversity at Work: The Practice of Inclusion, San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 229-259.
Özbilgin, M. (2009). Equality, diversity and inclusion at work: yesterday, today and tomorrow (pp. 1-16). Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
Peixoto, A., González, C. S. G., Strachan, R., Plaza, P., de los Angeles Martinez, M., Blazquez, M., & Castro, M. (2018, April). Diversity and inclusion in engineering education: Looking through the gender question. In 2018 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON) (pp. 2071-2075). IEEE.
Sherbin, L., & Rashid, R. (2017). Diversity doesn’t stick without inclusion. Harvard Business Review, 1.
Spector, N. D., Asante, P. A., Marcelin, J. R., Poorman, J. A., Larson, A. R., Salles, A., … & Silver, J. K. (2019). Women in pediatrics: progress, barriers, and opportunities for equity, diversity, and inclusion. Pediatrics, 144(5).
Tatli, A., Ozturk, M. B., & Woo, H. S. (2017). Individualization and marketization of responsibility for gender equality: The case of female managers in China. Human resource management, 56(3), 407-430.
First World War And Warfare
First World War And Warfare
Contents
TOC o “1-3” h z u First World War And Warfare PAGEREF _Toc379628642 h 1Introduction PAGEREF _Toc379628643 h 1New technology and industry development PAGEREF _Toc379628644 h 1Advancement in science PAGEREF _Toc379628645 h 2Improved infrastructure and communication PAGEREF _Toc379628646 h 2Conclusion PAGEREF _Toc379628647 h 3References PAGEREF _Toc379628648 h 3
IntroductionThe First World War took place between 1914 and 1918 which took off when Germany and Britain started fighting. The First World War therefore gave warfare a new face since it combined legacies of the French and industrial revolution. It thus paves way for the patterns of war in the twentieth-century (Kelly, M. 2012) This paper therefore analyzes the influence of the changes in warfare that were stimulated during the First World War which have served as a lead on the pattern of wars in the twentieth-century.the paper further looks at the legacies of the French and industrial revolutions that were incorporated into the first world war.
Industrial revolution took place in the nineteenth century and had a great influence on how the First World War was conducted. In the nineteenth century there was drastic and rapid changes one being great advances in industry as well as in technology and science. The changes that greatly influenced warfare include new technology. The advancement of technology made it possible for new weapon production, advancement in science and improved communication and infrastructure also had a great influence on the war.
New technology and industry developmentDuring the industrial revolution there was improvement of the existing weapons and invention of new weapons. The industrial revolution made it possible for production of weapons in large masses. There was improvement on manufacturing of steel and iron that were used in the manufacturing of some of the weapons. The production of weapons was now therefore undertaken with great accuracy. The weapons were more powerful and there was a great variety. A wide range of the weapons was therefore produced. This increase in the availability of weapons led to the success of the First World War since the weapons were readily available. The weapons that were produced were of high power such as rifles and loading weapons such as breech. These were more effective in the war and thus a great success in the war. There was use of fire power surpasses both range and destructive effect of a cannon that is six-powder this thus made the war very destructive as compared to the past wars. Some weapons such as the dumdum bullets and machine gun were very destructive (Zapotoczny, w. (2006). The wide range of weapons produced made it possible for choice of the suited weapon at a particular time and hence great success in the war. This new inventions gave rise to new philosophy of the war i.e. the warfare was now less physical and mental. It depended mostly on the technical knowhow.
Advancement in scienceScientific inventions played a vital role during the war. Though the scientific inventions were not war stimulated they played a crucial role in the development of the war. Though there was a lag phase before many scientific inventions affected the military technology, once they came into play they had a great influence in the war. Chemistry was among the greatest scientific use in the war. Most explosives were discovered through scientific research that played a major role during the war. Chemists investigated a large number of chemicals that had great potential for use as weapons. The armies grouped war gases as per their physiological effect. This means that they were grouped according to how they could affect the human body. For example one of these categories was lachrymators this include teargas like xylyl bromide. This agent has a primary effect on eyesight but when in large concentrations can affect the respiratory system. Another category is Asphxiators that include chlorine, phosgene that cause fluids to enter lungs hence prevent reach to the bloodstream. Another category was the vesicant or blister producing agent that registered the greatest casualty cases. It had a peculiar odor and was commonly referred to as mustard gas though it was a volatile liquid and not a gas (Heller, 2010). There was even discovery of rockets during this period which were used in the war. Other fields that were exploited were electricity and physics in the development of cables in the Atlantic Ocean, tidal gauges and compasses used by mariners.
Improved infrastructure and communicationThere was complete transformation of logistics and communications through massive building of railroad and steamships that were used to move supplies and troops from one area to another. Armies were bigger and hence they could be easily transported as they were more mobile. The telegraph was also an important aspect of development in communication since it paved way for easy contact and accessibility during the war, there was great exchange of information that was needed during the war for instance communication on when and where to launch an attack. The development of a wireless telegraph speeded up communication during the war. The submarine cable and telegraph were more flexible because the recipient and the sender were not tied down by systems that involved wires and cables. Naval operations were made more strategic by use of the wireless systems since ships lacked visual communication when at sea. There was development of tanks and airplanes that were a great revolution in transport. There was also development and use of gasoline engine (Zapotoczny, 2006).
This was used to haul food supplies and ammunition to maintain the large number of armies that are deployed in specific areas.
ConclusionIt is evident that the first world war has given a demonstration that the industrial revolution had put into place in each nation war machines that were of very great power which had never existed before. This machinery has played an important role in wars in the twentieth century. The technology used in world war one was beyond any reasonable doubt more complicated when compared to any other wars experienced previously. Much of what is seen in the twentieth century is the improvement of weapons that existed previously and making them perfect for instance artillery weapons and machine guns have been made more powerful and accurate by ballistics and metallurgists experts (Vaclav, 2005). Railroads have been made more efficient as transport has now been motorized gradually. More great innovations have been seen in airplane, submarine and poison gas.
This thesis has therefore shed some light on the impact of the industrial revolution on the First World War and how this has impacted warfare in the twentieth-century. This therefore means that there is no difference in warfare in the nineteenth century and twentieth century since the warfare in the twentieth century is a continuity in terms of weapons and technology from the First World War. The only difference is just the advancement of technology from that existed.
ReferencesZapotoczny, w. (2006). The Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Warfare. http://www.wzaponline.com/InductrialRevolution.p. Retrieved September 25, 2012, from www.wzaponline.com/InductrialRevolutionHeller, c. (2010). US Army Combined Arms Center | Sorry, we couldn’t find that page!. US Army Combined Arms Center and Fort Leavenworth Public Home Page. Retrieved September 25, 2012, from http://usacac.army.mil/cac2/cgsc/carl/resources/csi/Heller/HELLER.asKelly, M. (2012) Industrial Revolution in 19th Century America – Industrial Revolution. American History from About. Retrieved September 25, 2012, from http://americanhistory.about.com/od/industrialrev/a/indrevoverview.htm Vaclav ,S (2005). Creating the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations of 1867–1914 and Their Lasting Impact. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516874-7.