Recent orders
The Frontier
The Frontier
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Institution
Year
The Frontier that is also regarded as The Wild West encompasses the life, cultural expression of life and the elements of everyday life that began with European colonial settlements. The Frontier timeline shows that the period began in 17th century and ended with the admission of the areas as states in 1912. Shaped by extreme rivalry, the early settlers in this region were forced to remain alert for any attacks. The rivalry between the various side shaped the event that took place mainly between the Western and Southern European settlers. The other major aspect of The Frontier is that it defined the earlier maps that outline dhow the early settlers migrated and adopted the new life in the western lands. To better understand The Frontier, it is good to look at the pre-settlement period where the immigrants in this region already established economic, social, and political aspects of life. It is through these values and norms that shaped the post- The Frontier within its inclusive elements like social and economic forms. The daily life of people living on the frontier was filled with hard work and difficulties. Once a farmer cleared the land, built a cabin and a barn, and planted his crops, he still had a lot of chores that needed to be done each day.
Soke scholars define the Frontier as the line of contact that led to the birth of American civilization and the modernization of the American life. Over the years, the growth of the American culture during this period was largely rooted in the contact between the native and the European settlers (Tomscha et al., 2015). It is through this observation that may argue that that The Frontier defined the contact point between two different sides that accelerated civilization and thus birth and growth of a new America. Looking at the events that shaped the early 17th Century, it would be right to concluded that The Frontier played a key role in shaping what and what the people belied, practiced, and promoted. One of the defining elements in The Frontier is the integration and diversity of culture, social, and economic life of the settlers (Kapell, 2016). The Frontier outlines that the value of life was largely hinged on the variant norms that incorporated the diversity of the people’s beliefs. Throughout this period, the locals worked in farms and often established small business that were the foundation of the local economy. In the social aspect, the settlers had a very lucrative outlook to the way they interacted and built their social life.
As the European settlers moved towards the West, key changes were experienced mainly on the Far eastern lands that affected the way of life of the people. One way to look at the changes within The Frontier is the inclusive and variant social life that was closely tied to the livelihood of the people (Fussell, 2015). The Frontier is not only an outline of how the early American life started but the narration of changes that too placed during the early 17th Century. The European expansionism towers the West was marked with increased diversity in the way of life where the social and economic dynamics were the integral pillars of the society (Ellefsen, 2017). Moreover, the increased changes in the way of life meant that The Frontier did not only define the current state of the people but shaped how the future of the native Americans evolved.
The American native settlers made a great contribution to the nature and diversity of the various values and inclusive values that shaped the day to day life (Tomscha et al., 2015). For example, The Frontier shows that during the movement towards the West, the cultural and social aspects of life took a dramatic turn like shift to modernized way of life. The Frontier thus defines the transition that took place during this period and its effect on the native Americans where most of those who moved tot the Southern regions adopted agriculture and suburban life (Fussell, 2015). The growth of many shopping centers that developed into markets and later urban areas was a key aspect of the life and its inclusive norms. The Frontier thus defined the various aspects and values that shaped the way the locals within the European dominated regions carried with their life. It is through these dynamics of life rooted in agriculture and deep social ties that makes The Frontier a key defining period of the native America.
Still, The Frontier brings a more detailed outlook into how the interaction between the European settlers and the native American in the eastern regions changed the trajectory of both social and cultural dynamics (Fussell, 2015). Through these perspectives, the value of The Frontier is appreciated thereby breaking down how the transformation of native America affected and gave birth to a new civilization. The Frontier outlined key aspects of the dynamics that shaped the native American way of life where the natives started transforming towards a more civilized norms and behavior (Kapell, 2016). In order to survive, the entire family needed to work. The Frontier thuds defined the early life is the settlers in the America lands that took both the economic and social aspects. One of the defining moments in the shaping of the early settler life is the hard work, rivalry, and uncertainties that often ended up in conflicts (Ellefsen, 2017). The key to a diverse society was rooted within the cultural and social spheres of the settlers that are described as the values and forces that shaped life in The Frontier.
A case in point was where the western regions started adopting new ways of life that were inspired by the Europeans who moved towards these regions thus shaping a new trend like farming and economy (Tomscha et al., 2015). These factors played a key role in the whole aspect of dynamic and inclusive values that were centered on the social and cultural transformation. The Frontier as defining period was thus the foundation that was experienced in America even after 1700s. The remarkable transformation in this period are what many historical scholars refers to as the inclusive values of a dynamic change that changed the shape and image of America (Kapell, 2016). The Frontier also laid the foundation of a more compelling change that by a great extent influenced life in the West mainly in agriculture, economy, and social dynamics of life. The key to an understanding the nature and impact of The Frontier is to look at how every region changed in terms of cultural, social, and economic aspects that is well documented in the American historical records (Ellefsen, 2017). The other way to look at these changes is to analyze the way The Frontier impacted the individual life of the loads where some used this opportunity to gain ideas that helped them change their lives in all aspects.
Post the Frontier period also sheds some light into how the individual changes impacted the entire regions. The Frontier is referred to as the link between a less terraformed America to a new one that was more civilized thereby defining a key time in the native lands. Some studies have shown that the close border contact in The Frontier period did not only bring a new outlook into the life of the locals but also allowed the region to grow. The post The Frontier period mainly the end of the 17th Century saw great growth where economical means of life like transport began taking shape thus adding value to the native Americans way of life.
References
Ellefsen, S. K. (2017). Settlement in the Old Northwest Frontier and the Merging of Culture, 1750-1790.
Fussell, E. S. (2015). Frontier in American Literature. Princeton University Press.
Kapell, M. W. (2016). Exploring the next frontier: Vietnam, NASA, Star Trek and Utopia in 1960s and 70s American myth and history. Routledge.
Tomscha, S. A., & Gergel, S. E. (2015). Historic land surveys present opportunities for reconstructing frontier settlement patterns in North America. Landscape Ecology, 30(2), 203-213.
The French revolution was one of the most important events that took place in the recent times
French Revolution
Introduction:
The French revolution was one of the most important events that took place in the recent times. It can be characterized as important on multiple accounts. The first being its timing on account of the transition from the middle ages to modern times, the second being its impact on the overall society of Europe, the third being that of its message being conveyed abroad and fourth the precedence it set forth. The revolution was not a result of activity or events that took place rather it was built upon numerous factors, the factors were not just enlisted and limited one area, rather they were as a result of social, economic, political, intellectual, internal and external factors.
The overall course and account of French Revolution can be divided into three areas, the causes of the revolution, the course of events that took place in the entire sequence of activities, followed by the outcomes and consequences of the revolution.
The causes:
Political:
France was a monarchy that was being run by the Kings for centuries. The Bourbon dynasty was in place for decades and centuries and they had a centralized form of government. There was little access and approach of the common man to the corridors of power. The Bourbons were totally monarchic and aristocratic in their outfit and appearance. All the decisions were subject to their approval even if they were contrary to the constitution and merits system within the country. The King Louise the 16th was an incompetent one and was driven by lavish life style. He was famous for the infamous Madame de Pompidou’s affair. His Queen Marie Louise Antoinette was an Austrian princess who was little liked or admired in the ranks of common man.
Social:
French society was clearly divided into number of segments. It had the oppressors and oppressed in civil context. It was divided into the Clergy, Nobles and Bourgeois, each sharing and enjoying different amount of authority, respect and say in the social spectrum. Bourgeois being the least powerful and were under the press of taxes, trainings, restrictions and many more similar accounts of inequality (Muntone). The other two estates on the contrary enjoyed utmost privileges, resources and say in the political spectrum. These two were the most corrupt. The Clergy had infiltrated into the sphere of politics, they was little left on account of their cleanliness in the domain of moral piety. The nobles were no different; most of their time was spent in merry making and pleasing the top officials. They also enjoyed immunity from the taxes and other requirements of a free and equal society.
Intellectual:
The two estates, Clergy and Nobles were completely void of any intellectual capability. They were driven by leisure, luxury and other lavish life style activities. The middle class on other hand was the hardest working and made maximum effort towards the social development. It was out of the middle class that the intellectual rose up and started realizing their worth and importance and raised voice against the injustice in the society. Voltaire (Barber, 2004, 20), Montesquieu, Jean John Roseau were three of the many more who rose up through their intellectual thinking and tried bringing about awareness in the ranks of middle class people who had been subject to all kinds of exploitations and injustices.
Economic causes:
The economic causes of the revolution constituted the social disparity, inequality in the ranks of people, low amount of payment against their work, the exploitation of the labors, middle class and complete extravagant life style following by the nobles and elites. The expenses of the King’s palace and that of the queen out past the overall expenses of the different communities dedicated for the welfare of the people. Finance ministers who were in favor of the life style of the rich and the nobles and endorsed their lavish life styles were promoted to the seats of Finance administration. Necker who was the people’s favorite was expelled on account of criticizing the life style of the rich and nobles and as a result this resulted in the resentment of the people against the king and other nobles. Turgot was another finance minister from those times who had a rule and influence over the economic standings of the French society at that time.
Lack of Democracy and lack of Parliament: the last time Three Estates met was in 1614, the King made most of the decisions without the approval or consent and consultation of masses and other elected members. The major decisions were made within the family of the Bourbons and little regard was given to the common man’s interest and concerns.
Based on these factors, which were sufficient enough to bring about revolt, the events led to outbreak of a formal revolution. A revolution that would turn out to be the most bloodiest of its kinds in times mankind had known. It formally started in 1789 and in few years changed the overall outlook of France first, and then went on to ignite the spark of nationalism freedom and independence from usurpers in other parts of the Europe. Storming of Bessel and Tuilleries constituted an important part of the French Revolution that paved the way for further progress in the course of events and overall struggle (Acemoglu et al).
The events of French revolution unfolded in different stages in form of the establishment of Parliament, General Assembly, Reign of Terror, Directory. All these were important in their own right and constituted an important part of the revolution. These were attached with movements such as the Declaration of the rights of people, Law of Suspects, and many other events of importance.
Another important characteristic of the French revolution was the use of a special tool that was never used before- Guillotine. It was used to behead the people who were considered offenders. The King was also slated under it and his Queen Marie Antoinette suffered the same fate. Reign of terror was in place from 1793 to 1794. This took place during the Reign of terror which made up for the most brutal and bloodiest part of the revolution. The establishment of Directory saw settlement and restoration of order and peace in the ranks of political and social sphere. Directory lasted from 1795 to 1799. However they were marked by inefficiency and corruption and were soon taken over by a military coup by one of the most famous generals the modern military era has seen- Napoleon Bonaparte.
The throes of revolution settled to a greater extend by the end of 18th century and the beginning of new one saw the emergence of Napoleon Bonaparte.
Consequences:
Overall the revolution had turned the outlook of French society upside down, it had set precedence of its own kind. However it had given the people a new hope, people in the entire Europe. What it did was it gave them the sense of self accomplishment, it resulted in an end of the monarchic rule, it gave France a stronger army in form of Napoleon being its head, it gave rise to the famous slogan of Equality Liberty and Fraternity (Torres, 71). Declaration of rights of people served well and for the first time accountability was brought into act.
It further resulted in the enactment of taxes regardless of the social standing. It was characterized by a three color flag. Although the revolution saw short term upheavals and was marked by bloodshed, yet its long term impacts were that of establishment of a free Europe with Germany and Italy gaining their independence in the same manner under the banner of nationalism and self rule.
References:
Acemoglu, Daron, et al. “The Consequences of Radical Reform: The French Revolution.” Working Paper. 2009.
Barber, Nicola. The French Revolution. Black Rabbit Books, 2004.
BIBLIOGRAPHY Muntone, Stephanie. Major Causes of the French Revolution. 3 March 2012. 20 Nov 2013 <http://www.education.com/study-help/article/european-history-french-revolution-causes/>.
Torres, Nelson Maldonado-. Against War: Views from the Underside of Modernity. Duke University Press, 2008.
Price Discrimination
Price Discrimination
Name
Course
Instructor
DatePrice Discrimination
Introduction
Price discrimination is an issue that faces current business corporations in their quest to cater for a diverse range of customers. Some companies may offer different prices for different customers, a fact that does not resonate well with some customers as well as competing companies. Many companies have found themselves in the hot seat after being sued for price discriminatory practices. However, there is a thin line between ethical and unethical practices, as well as legal and illegal practices. The fact that different prices are charged to different people for the same goods and services may warrant unethical and illegal charges. Nevertheless, organizations may argue that they carry on with price discrimination for the benefit of customers, as offering price discounts on products will enable customers to afford their products. This paper highlights the issues at hand by considering ethical theories, relevant areas of law, and recommendations to reduce liability so as to improve the ethical climate. Price discrimination may be should not be made illegal as the customer is the one who stands to benefit.
Types of Discrimination
There are three types of price discrimination, the first one being first degree price discrimination, also known as the perfect price discrimination. It entails charging different prices to different customers for the same quality and quantity of a product. The explanation behind this form of discrimination is that a firm sets the highest price that the customer is willing and able to pay for a product. For this to be achieved, the firm has to have knowledge of each customer so that the customer can be dealt with on an individual basis. As such, the firm gets the highest return possible from each customer. This type of discrimination is especially witnessed in negotiable business arrangements such as car dealership where the salesman may quote the initial price based on the customer’s appearance and capability to pay. Other customers may be charged a lower price for the same car, and hence price discrimination occurs against more affluent purchasers (Landsburg, 2010).
The second type of price discrimination is known as second degree price discrimination. It involves charging different prices according to the volume of goods sold. Normally, lower prices are charges for larger volumes of goods, with higher prices being charges on smaller packages. Second degree price discrimination is usually seen in quantity discount offers. For instance, a bigger pack of washing detergents costs less than a smaller pack of the same (Landsburg, 2010). While customers may be encouraged to purchase the bigger pack so as to save money, this practice discriminates against people who live alone as they might not require larger bundles of products, and hence end up losing out on the quantity discounts. Students and pensioners are among the groups of people who are negatively impacted by second degree price discrimination as they may not need huge amounts of products. Large families, more affluent people, and institutions greatly benefit from the discounts as they end up paying less for the same type and quality of products.
Third degree price discrimination involves setting different prices for the same product based on the customer’s specifications. Firms use consumer knowledge to determine different prices for different consumer segments so that everyone can be able to afford the product. They utilize customers’ elasticity of demand to determine prices (Landsburgh, 2010). This type of discrimination is mostly common in the transport sector where particular customers such as students and senior citizens are given discounts so that they pay lower fares than the rest of the people. Movie theaters may also engage in this form of discrimination as they offer subsidized prices on students’ and children’s tickets to watch the same performances as adults. This type of discrimination is deemed unfair to the rest of the public as they are not entitled to the same discounts as the targeted individuals.
Ethical Theories
Ethical theories reflect philosophical views and values that are regarded by the society. The society holds the opinion that producers and manufacturers should have an ethical duty towards their consumers. They have an ethical duty to inform consumers concerning different ranges or products and their prices. They also have an ethical duty to notify customers concerning any discounts or benefits that they are entitled to. The ethical duty of the producer takes on a different perspective when there is a conflict in ethical obligations. On one hand, the manufacturer is supposed to offer uniform prices to consumers purchasing the same products, and is still expected to offer products at a discounted rate so that customers who may not afford them at the normal prices can access them.
Ethics may also be viewed from the competitors’ perspective. Price discrimination may be termed as threatening competition if it is determined that there is a reasonable probability that it can harm competitive processes in the seller’s market. On the other hand, companies have an ethical duty to be fair to their competitors by engaging in ethical practices. For instance, offering extremely low prices on products may drive other similar firms out of the market as they may not be able to match up the prices offered. As a result, many of them would be driven out of the industry and incur huge losses. Several ethical theories have been presented below so as to determine whether price discrimination is an ethical practice or not.
1. Ethical absolutism
Ethical absolutism is an ethical theory that is formed on the belief that there are specific standards through which morality is measured. It states that a wrong is unjustifiable regardless of the circumstances. The concepts of right and wrong do not change based on the particulars of a situation (Bowie, 2004). It can be interpreted to mean that the end does not always justify the means. If an action is deemed as being wrong, but engaging in it would be of benefit to others, this theory states that the action is unethical as the means of achieving the desired goal is questionable.
An example of ethical situation with regards to third degree price discrimination is a case whereby a retailer charges different prices to different customer segments for the same good or service. A movie theater may offer discounts to students so that they can afford tickets to attend shows. They may have good intentions of availing the tickets to individuals who would not have otherwise been able to afford them. They may argue that their actions are ethical as they have resulted in positive outcomes, even though the means used in arriving at those outcomes are unjustifiable. However, the theory of ethical absolutism states that such actions are wrong, and therefore unethical. It can be inferred to mean that price discrimination is unethical as it favors some customers while discriminating others regardless of the reasons for the discrimination.
2. Deontology
Deontology is an ethical theory which asserts that an act’s morality depends on an actor’s motive. In contrast with ethical absolutism, deontology is based on the principle of duty. The producer has a duty to always act with good intent towards the consumer. The principle behind deontology is that the right of the individual, in this case the consumer, should be upheld (Bowie, 2004). In relation to the issue of price discrimination, deontology states that a manufacturer or retailer may practice price discrimination, as long as the rights of consumers in general are respected, and the consumer stands to gain from the price discrimination.
A good illustration of this theory would be second degree price discrimination that entails charging different prices for different quantities of the same product. This type of discrimination offers the consumer a choice between different volumes and their corresponding prices. Normally, the customer who buys the largest bundle of a product ends up paying less for the same good as compared to the customer who buys smaller quantities. The retailer may argue that the customer is offered an informed choice and thus is not discriminated against. That said, all customers have the potential of benefiting from price discounts as long as they purchase bigger volumes of goods, although consumers who may not afford goods packaged in bigger sizes may be negatively impacted. This theory supports price discrimination as it argues that an organization’s action of providing different prices to different people for the same goods and services is morally right if it does so for the benefit of customers.
Ethical Outlook Leading to the Best Legal Outcome for the Business Situation
Both the ethical absolutism and deontology ethical theory have been analyzed so as to establish their principles. Among the two, deontology would lead to the best legal outcome as it explains that an action is deemed as being ethical as long as the producer acts with the best intention towards the customer. The producer may assert that their main reason for engaging in price discrimination is solely for the benefit of the consumer. The consumer would have much to benefit as they would afford products that they would not have previously afforded due to price constraints. On the other hand, ethical absolutism would be detrimental to the outcome of the business situation as it asserts that the positive outcome of price discrimination does not make up for the process, which is termed as being unethical.
Relevant Areas of Law
There is a close correlation between the law and ethical attitudes upheld by the society. This is because laws and their interpretation originate from the society’s ethical beliefs. Laws are needed so as to regulate the legal environment of business so that unfair practices can be rooted out. Businesses have an obligation not only towards the society, but towards their competitors. With that in mind, laws are created not only to oversee business activities, but also for the protection of the society (Meiners, Ringleb, and Edwards, 2014). Various areas of law are created so as to oversee those activities as outlined below.
1. Tort Law
A tort refers to a civil wrong recognized by law as grounds for a lawsuit. The wrongs lead to harm, which may constitute the basis for a claim. All torts contain three elements comprising of a conscious act of price discrimination, intent of the act, and damages in form of mental harm. The act by the defendant should be of conscious volition, meaning that the defendant should be awake when the price discrimination occurs. The defendant, in this case the retailer or producer, should be aware of the consequences of engaging in price discrimination. The plaintiff should show proof of suffering damages due to the defendant’s actions (Oswald, 2010).
The intentional infliction of emotional distress tort would be applicable for this issue. This tort requires the fourth element known as actual damages. This means that real damage must have occurred for the intentional affliction of emotional distress tort to be valid (Jennings, 2014). For instance, in case a plaintiff files a case against a manufacturer for intentional affliction of emotional distress occurring as a result of price discrimination, evidence of real damage incurred such as a psychiatrist’s bill should be provided so as to show that the plaintiff was distressed.
2. Anti-trust law
Section 2 of the Clayton’s Act states that sellers are prohibited from offering different prices to different competitive buyers. Price discrimination is therefore a violation of this Act. Different prices are allowed due to extra costs such as shipping to different geographic regions. Quantity discounts are permitted by this law as long as they are offered uniformly to all customers purchasing the same quantities of goods. Under this law, punishment may entail imprisonment of not more than one year and/or a fine of not more than $5,000.
3. Criminal law
The Robinson Patman Act of 1936 criminalizes price discrimination by producers. It was introduced so as to prevent certain forms of price discrimination by sellers. Section 2 (a) of the Act states that it is a violation for a seller to sell similar products to different buyers at different prices within a short period of time, thereby leading to unfair competition.
Discrimination takes place when it is established that there is a difference in net prices between sales to different customers. However, some factors such as difference in delivery times, return policies, or preferential treatment towards certain customers are considered invalid as they do not relate to price. Nevertheless, there are factors that have to be present so as to warrant price discrimination. The first one involves proof of two or more transactions from the same seller that validate a difference in prices. As such, the transactions have to be directly from the seller, and the presence of a third party agent means that the seller cannot be liable for the price discrimination. Third party agents constitute retailers, wholesalers, and manufacturers who may offer different prices from each other. The other factor in section 2(a) specifies that the products have to be of the same quality (Fredman, 2011). This however, does not apply to intangible products such as insurance policies, advertising services, or health services. The content of the product has to be similar, even though packaging may vary. If all those factors are determined, then the plaintiff can file a price discrimination suit.
There are different claims of injury that can be claimed by the plaintiff, depending on whether it was filed by a fellow competitor or by a customer. Prime line injury is filed by a competitor and it involves a reduction in price that is bound to impact negatively on other competitors due to unfair pricing. For it to be effective, three conditions have to be met. First, the plaintiff has to prove that the defendant is selling the product at a lower cost than they were purchased at. Secondly, the competitors have to show that the defendant’s engagement in price discrimination will drive them out of the market. Finally, it has to be established that the price-discriminating company plans to hike up prices once the competitors leave the market (Pollock, 2013).
The other claim of injury is known as the second line injury. It is filed by a customer who is negatively impacted by the price discrimination of a seller. In this case, price difference has to have continued for a long period of time, such as an year. This claim is subject to several factors involving the seller consistently selling the same product to some customers at a lower price and others at a higher price at around the same period of time. The second factor involves the fact that the benefiting customer has gained an undue advantage over other customers (Price Discrimination Handbook, 2013). In relation to this law, price discrimination is therefore illegal and could result in criminal penalties.
Recommendation to Reduce Liability
The importance of reducing liability cannot be overemphasized, and measures that would prevent such an occurrence should be actively undertaken by the seller. Consequences of liability include negative brand image, financial losses, and punitive implications. Measures that a seller would adopt so as to reduce exposure to liability are discussed below.
Notification to all customers regarding discounts
A seller should notify all customers concerning available discounts so that they can make informed choices concerning their purchases. In case of a suit against the seller by a disgruntled customer, the seller may state that section 2(a) of the Robinson Patman Act of 1936 was not violated as all customers were given an equal chance to benefit from the discount (Corrigan, 2011). This would mean that the customer also had a chance of claiming the discount but failed to do so, and as a result has no claim of price discrimination.
Notifications concerning Changes in prices
The seller should notify customers about changes in prices and may cite changing market conditions as being the reason for price variances. Section 2(a) of the Robinson Patman Act permits sellers to change prices based on changing conditions such as market conditions, distress sales, and changes in prices of perishable goods (Pollock, 2013). In case prices of goods suddenly hike up due to market conditions, court processes, or increase in production expenses, a seller is allowed to increase prices based on the above conditions.
Offering functional discounting
The seller may offer discounts only to wholesalers or agent distributors as this would not necessitate a price discrimination claim. The Supreme Court states that certain benefits may be awarded to distributors and wholesalers as they assist in the distribution channel through advertising and offering storage for the products. However, the exception to this rule is that there has to be no unfair competition between the producer’s direct consumers and the wholesaler’s customers (Zhang, Bruno, & Dutta, 2013). A company may therefore offer discounts with the reason that since the wholesalers and distributors are buying large quantities of goods, this greatly reduces economies of scale, and the said buyers are warranted to get discounts.
Equal allowances on promotions
Promotional allowances involving reductions in prices in terms of discounts or payments should be availed to all customers on an equal basis. Since failure to provide a promotional allowance to all customers on an equal basis is a violation of the Robinson Patman Act section 2(d), sellers should provide allowances both to direct and indirect customers (Fredman, 2011). So as to ensure equality, allowances should be based on the purchased quantity.
Conclusion
Price discrimination should not be made illegal as the customer is the one who greatly benefits. Several ethical theories have been reviewed so as to determine whether the theory can be made into practice. Though the ethical absolutism theory disallows the practice, the deontology theory supports the assertion that price discrimination should be allowed, as long as the one who ends up benefiting is the general public. With that in mind, it can then be concluded that there are ethical theories which support price discrimination, and this has a positive influence on the thesis. Several areas of law consisting of the tort law, Anti-trust law, and criminal law have been analyzed, and they all offer special circumstances under which price discrimination can be termed as illegal. However, the recommendations to prevent exposure to liability have presented ways through which sellers can offer different prices on the same products in a legal manner. The issue of price discrimination may be of benefit to others and may negatively impact some individuals, and the only way to measure its effectiveness is to weigh the benefits versus the demerits. Since the benefits surpass the shortcomings, price discrimination should be embraced as it leads to great monetary savings for the consumer, something that is a welcome relief, during this era of economic constraints.
References
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Bowie, R. (2004). Ethical studies (2nd ed.). Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Corrigan, R. H. (2011). Ethics: a university guide. Gloucester, [England: Progressive Frontiers Press.HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Fredman, S. (2011). Discrimination law. Oxford [England: Oxford University Press.
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Jennings, M. (2014). Business: its legal, ethical, and global environment (6th ed.). Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South Western West.
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Landsburg, S. E. (2010). Price theory and applications / Steven E. Landsburg, University of Rochester (Ninth ed.). New York: Cengage Learning.
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Meiners, R. E., Ringleb, A. H., & Edwards, F. L. (2014). The legal environment of business (7th ed.). Cincinnati, Ohio: West Legal Studies in Business.
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”http://www.bibme.org/#HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Oswald, L. J. (2010). Law of marketing Lynda J. Oswald.. Cincinnati, Ohio: West/Thomson Learning.
Pollock, J. (2013). Ethical dilemmas and decisions in criminal justice. Cengage Learning
HYPERLINK “http://www.bibme.org/#”Price discrimination handbook. (2013). Chicago, Ill.: ABA Section of Antitrust Law.
Zhang, Y. W., Bruno, H. A., & Dutta, S. (2013). The Dynamic Effect of Price Discrimination in Business Markets.